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John Jacob Astor (born Johann Jakob Astor, July 17, 1763 in Walldorf, Margraviate of Baden; died: March 29, 1848 in New York City), was born in 1763 in Walldorf, near the cities of Heidelberg and Mannheim in the Margraviate of Baden (now part of the German state of Baden-Württemberg). Astor was among the first wave of German immigrants to arrive in the United States after the Declaration of Independence. Over the course of his career, he applied his great entrepreneurial talent to build the first modern American trade empire with partners in Europe, Asia, and the Americas. He dealt in luxury goods, such as musical instruments, furs, Chinese tea, and silk. Building on the wealth Astor realized from his trading endeavors, he accumulated the largest portion of his fortune from real estate ventures. He speculated in Manhattan real estate and opened the Astor House in 1836, the most famous and elegant American hotel of the period. By the time of his death in 1848, Astor had become the wealthiest man in the United States. His estate was worth twenty million dollars (approximately $570 million in 2010$) and included two hotels, one theater, and many other real estate holdings and buildings in New York City. Even by early-twenty-first-century standards, Astor remains one of the most successful entrepreneurs in American history. Astor’s birth on July 17, 1763, is recorded in the Reformed Church register in Walldorf. He was the sixth and last child of Maria Magdalena and Johann Jakob Astor, who had married in April of 1749. His father was a butcher, a trade very much dependent on the vagaries of the local agricultural economy and the varying wealth of his fellow villagers. When John Jacob was three, his recently widowed father married Christina Barbara Seybold and the elder Astor’s household continued to grow, cramping the large family into a small home. As the family grew, the elder children began to leave home one by one. The second eldest child, Heinrich, was the first Astor son to depart. In order to finance his passage to North America in 1775, Heinrich signed up as a Hessian mercenary to fight for the British in the American Revolution. Soon Heinrich changed his name to Henry and, once in North America, left the military. Georg Peter Astor, the eldest Astor child, left home in 1777 and established himself in London as a wooden instrument maker. The same year, Astor’s brother Melchior moved to a neighboring village to work as a butcher and later moved approximately 124 miles (approximately 200 kilometers) north to the community of Neuwied (near Koblenz) to work as a cook. As the eldest son from his father’s first marriage still living in Walldorf, John Jacob increasingly took on new responsibilities at home and in the family business. John Jacob attended a one-room school in Walldorf that had been established by the Reformed Church in 1737. Johann Valentine Jeune, the head teacher and a descendent of a French Huguenot, shared the teaching responsibilities with Reformed Pastor Johann Philip Steiner. Both educators enjoyed teaching John Jacob because he was talented and easy to motivate. Jeune introduced John Jacob to Calvinist ideas, including the belief that wealth was a reflection of God’s favor and that diligence and engagement were keys to wealth. John Jacob’s education ended in 1777 at age fourteen after his father demanded that he join the family trade. John Jacob obeyed dutifully at first, but when offered the opportunity to join his brother’s instrument building and selling business in London, he leapt at the prospect and convinced his father that such a move was in his, and his father’s, best interest. He left for London in 1780 at age seventeen, leaving behind a life with few prospects for betterment and financial security for a promising new start in the busy, metropolitan capital of Great Britain. John Jacob could not afford to pay for transportation to London, so he walked thirty miles to the river town of Speyer, where he sought employment as a Rhine raftsman in order to earn enough money to pay for the boat fare to Rotterdam and the passage to England. Life in the busy commercial metropolis of London met John Jacob’s expectations. He adapted easily to British life and acculturated rapidly. Astor officially anglicized his name during this period. He honed his business acumen and sales skills working in his brother’s instrument building shop. He was also an astute observer of other business opportunities, such as the sudden boom in demand for textiles due to British wartime needs. As the war neared its end, correspondence between John Jacob and his brother Henry in New York City convinced John Jacob that New Yorkers had a pent-up demand for luxury items. The Astor brothers were eager to cash in on this demand by starting a transatlantic trade in musical instruments. George would produce them in London and John Jacob would import and sell them in New York City. John Jacob left for the young United States two months after the Revolutionary War officially ended, embarking on the ship North Carolina in November of 1783 and arriving in Baltimore in the spring of 1784. After traveling to New York City, he reunited with his brother Henry, and prepared to start a business in which he could make money by applying his prior commercial experience, family connections, and fluency in English and German. Astor arrived in New York City with a few of his brother’s flutes and a small amount of money. He sold the musical instruments and used the profits to import additional instruments from England. Initially, his business activities did not cover his living expenses. John Jacob’s brother Henry helped him obtain supplemental employment as a delivery boy for a German-American baker named George Dieterich. In the following months John Jacob delivered bread and cakes to the costumers of the small bakery. In this way, he familiarized himself with his new environment. Within a few months of his arrival in the city, American fur trader Robert Bowne hired Astor to assist him with his business. Astor worked for Bowne for several months and learned how to buy and sell furs and prepare peltries. Astor would later put these skills to good use in his own import and trade enterprises. Henry Astor also introduced John Jacob to the congregation of the German Reformed Church of New York. John Jacob soon became an active member of the congregation, and served as the church’s treasurer from 1791 to 1797. In this important post, he was responsible for managing all of the congregation’s finances. The church provided Astor with a social network of German co-religionists, but he ultimately sought a means of entry into New York City’s well-established, upper-class society. His effort to cultivate relationships with upper-class New Yorkers was a direct outgrowth of his business interests. Only wealthy New Yorkers could afford the luxury items he imported from Europe. In the fall of 1785 he married Sarah Todd, who came from a family of Scottish origin that had resided in New York City for several generations. For Astor, his marriage to Sarah Todd not only brought personal happiness but also economic independence. Sara Todd Astor’s wedding dowry of $300 (approximately $7,000 in 2010$) was modest, but it enabled her husband to expand his small import business. He established his own shop, selling instruments, furs, and other imported luxury goods. Todd was a pious, loving, and business-minded wife and gradually became his most important business partner. She handled the family’s business affairs in New York whenever Astor was away from home. Sarah Todd’s dowry helped Astor expand his business, but the Todd family’s social connections permitted Astor true entry into upper-class society and enabled him to forge useful connections with merchants, traders, ship owners, and other New York elites. Sarah’s brother Adam was a sea captain with personal connections to many of the other captains and ship owners who delivered cargo to New York. This would prove to be a great asset to Astor’s import trade. Sarah’s stepsister also helped Astor establish many useful business contacts among New York’s merchants. John Whetten, Sarah’s nephew, was a naval officer who provided valuable introductions to ship owners. Astor worked with him often during his time on active duty and later Astor repeatedly gave Whetten command of his merchant ships. It was Astor’s development of the social and economic network to which his wife gave him entry that formed the basis for what became the Astor trade empire. Two years after his 1785 marriage, John Jacob joined the German Society of the City of New York, as had his brother before him, but unlike his religious commitment to the German Reformed Church, he showed little interest in German-American social issues. Instead, Astor became intrigued by the Freemasons and decided that the secret fraternal order might be a more effective venue than the German Society for cultivating business and social contacts with New York’s social and political elites. In 1789, he was officially accepted as member of Holland Lodge No. 8, which was part of the Grand Lodge of the State of New York. He enjoyed regular meetings with many of his fellow businessmen and other highly placed and powerful New Yorkers, including DeWitt Clinton, who became mayor of New York City and later governor of New York State, and George Clinton, who was DeWitt’s uncle and a close friend of Thomas Jefferson. Later, Astor became a senior warden of the lodge and ended his career as Master of the Holland Lodge. John Jacob Astor’s business thrived during this era, in part because the family lived relatively modestly and in part because he focused on accumulating capital and reinvesting the profits of his business ventures. In 1789, based on his brother’s advice, John Jacob expanded his business endeavors and began to invest in real estate in New York City. Land in Lower Manhattan was considered a good buy and was in high demand due of the large number of immigrants landing in the city each year. John Jacob approached his dealings in real estate cautiously at first. On May 18, 1789, he bought a lot on the corner of Bowery Lane and Elizabeth Street. Later that year, he bought the neighboring property from James Bolmer, who owned a restaurant nearby. Encouraged by the success of his early real estate transactions he expanded that aspect of his business and acquired more property. He moved his business from its location on Queen Street, where he lived with his wife and young daughter, to a new and bigger commercial space, which he rented at 40 Little Dock Street (now Water Street) in Manhattan. In 1794, he and his wife bought property for their family and business at 149 Broadway, right in the commercial heart of the city where New York’s rich and famous resided. Ten years after John Jacob emigrated from Walldorf, he owned a successful import business and was a substantial property owner, achievements that would have been impossible for him in the German village he left behind. In 1789, almost five years after his arrival in the United States, he became an American citizen and the following year, his name appeared among other prominent New York City merchants in the New York Directory and Register and he would continue to be prominently featured in the directory for the remainder of his life. The cold New York winter of 1788-1789 proved to be a boon for Astor’s fledgling import business. Local demand for furs increased dramatically and Astor could have sold many more if only he had had them in stock. To prevent future shortages, Astor decided to hunt for furs himself. He bought the necessary supplies in New York City and set out for the relatively unsettled northwestern corner of the state near the Canadian border and Lake Ontario. He targeted beavers and raccoons, because their furs were popular for coats, caps, and gloves. First, he followed Native American trails on foot, but soon he bought a canoe to move north more quickly. He slept outside and ate fish or meat from the animals he hunted. After a couple of weeks, he returned to New York City with many furs. With Sarah’s assistance, he dressed the animal skins skillfully and made a substantial profit selling them in his store. The large profit margin on furs fueled Astor’s ambition to expand his trade business. On subsequent trips, he brought beads, clothing, and wooden toys to trade with the Native Americans for furs and used the music from his flute to gain their trust in trade negotiations. Other merchants began to copy Astor’s trade practices. Trade routes were established throughout upstate New York and merchants began to look to Montreal in British Canada as a source for additional furs. British colonial regulations required that Canadian furs had to be exported to London before they could be imported to the United States. This made imported Canadian furs much more expensive in the New York market. After Jay’s Treaty loosened trade restrictions between Canada and the United States in 1796, Astor began to import furs from Montreal directly to New York City. The region around the Great Lakes became more accessible to American traders as a result of the treaty. Consequently, competition in the New York fur trade stiffened, but Astor continued to profit due to his head start and years of experience. Astor began to look for other outlets for his supply of furs. In 1800, he decided to enter the China trade. The first American-flag vessel had sailed to China in 1784, two years after the emperor of China had allowed certain merchants in Canton to trade with non-Chinese merchants. In the years that followed, Astor had watched the cautious steps taken by fellow New York merchants in the China trade. After careful research and meetings with fellow merchants and ship owners, Astor decided to ship furs and Hawaiian sandalwood to China and purchase silk, tea and spices for sale in New York. Silk was particularly important to Astor, since it was becoming fashionable in New York City and would complement his fur sales. Thomas Jefferson’s Embargo Act of 1807, which forbade American-flag shipping from leaving American ports for foreign destinations in response to attacks on American vessels by British and French warships during the Napoleonic Wars, halted Astor’s overseas trade endeavors. The embargo was nothing short of a financial catastrophe for Astor, particularly since he also faced serious competition in the Great Lakes fur trade from the British-Canadian North West and Hudson’s Bay Companies. Astor decided to outflank the powerful, continental fur-trading duopoly by establishing fur trading posts on the Pacific coast and cementing American claims to the Oregon Territory. Astor’s plan for trading posts on the Pacific depended on support from President Jefferson. In 1808 he wrote, confidentially, to his friend DeWitt Clinton and explained his expansion plan with the expectation that Clinton would use his family connections to secure presidential consideration of the proposal. At the time, DeWitt Clinton’s uncle, George Clinton, served as Jefferson’s vice president. In his first letter to the president on February 27, 1808, Astor asked for Jefferson’s permission to trade with the Native American tribes west of the Mississippi River. He also inquired about government assistance in the form of military support in the case of attacks by hostile Native Americans or the British. Jefferson was delighted with Astor’s letter because Astor’s plan mirrored his own vision of how the American West should be developed. An exchange of letters ensued in which Astor developed his idea of expanding American fur trading networks to the Pacific and impressed the president with his vision. Astor’s ambition was to gain control over the new fur trade in the relatively unexplored territories by establishing his own fur trading company. The company would provide structure and pace for the development of the West and would drive the British trading companies from United States territory. New York would serve as the enterprise’s headquarters. Astor intended to lay out his trading route from St. Louis to the Pacific following in the footsteps of Lewis and Clark’s expedition through the Louisiana Territory. He wanted to make use of the knowledge gained from the expedition, but more importantly he wanted to take advantage of the region’s geography to further his business activities. Following the Louisiana Purchase, the United States had gained control of the entire length of the Mississippi River and Astor planned to use the river as the main route into the Louisiana Territory. The natural network of regional rivers branching westward from the Mississippi would provide access to hunting grounds and trading posts in the trans-Mississippi West. The furs would be brought to St. Louis first, and then shipped down the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico where they would be loaded onto ships for the sea voyage to New York. Astor called his new business the American Fur Company, underscoring his own sense of patriotism. The trading company was incorporated for twenty-five years and capitalized with two million dollars (approximately $36 million in 2010$) in assets. Since Astor preferred to keep the company’s financial control in his own hands in order to increase the wealth of his family, he did not invite other investors to join the firm and tailored the organizational structure of the company to suit his needs. As the company’s sole owner, he made all the decisions and bore all the risk, sharing none with the nine managing directors he employed and who reported to him. The Embargo Act of 1807 and subsequent trade restrictions forced Astor to focus on American-based business endeavors. Trading in furs and real estate provided income and helped him accumulate wealth during these years. He invested his profits from the pre-embargo China trade into New York real estate. The city had grown significantly over the years, and Astor believed that more immigrants would continue to arrive from Europe. In fact, the number of New York City inhabitants doubled from 33,000 to 60,000 between1790 and 1800. Astor began to purchase real estate in Manhattan outside the original colonial city limits. By 1819 he had invested $715,000 (approximately $12 million in 2010$) in Manhattan real estate, an investment of most of his cash and liquid capital that paid off because the city continued to grow during the early decades of the nineteenth century. Astor continued to invest in real estate and housing from 1819 to 1834, when he stepped back as president of the American Fur Company. During these 15 years, Astor spent another $445,000 to acquire real estate and buildings. When he retreated from the fur trade after 1834, he entered a third phase of acquiring real estate. By then he had become convinced that the real estate business was the perfect business for him, because it allowed him to capitalize on the housing needs of thousands of immigrants arriving annually in New York City. He spent about $832,000 on real estate between the years 1834 and 1848. In total, he bought nearly two million dollars (approximately $57 million in 2010$) of Manhattan real estate, making his New York real estate endeavors the most important of all of his enterprises and providing the bulk of a fortune that far surpassed the wealth of all of his contemporaries. His courage to invest in unsettled farmland, his business instincts, and his foresight when it came to the future development, growth, and expansion of New York enabled him to become the richest man in America. Astor was always concerned about his public image. He often discussed it with his advisors, and followed their strategy in order to make sure that his name was always associated with positive achievements and economic success and that only the most successful or most prestigious projects would bear the name Astor. Accordingly, the outpost in the Oregon Territory on the Pacific coast was named “Astoria,” his most prestigious hotel was the Astor House, the library he donated was the Astor Library, and in his will he provided funds for the construction and operation of a poorhouse in his hometown of Walldorf, named Astorhaus, which opened in 1854. Astor’s donation to the library represented his most significant philanthropic project. He wanted to enable all New Yorkers to educate themselves regardless of class. Astor was grateful for the education he had enjoyed as a relatively poor child in Walldorf, and he cherished learning as a highly valuable good. The Astor Library was first located on Astor Place, formerly Lafayette Square, close to William Backhouse Astor’s house, an Astor landmark in his beloved city. About fifty years after Astor’s death, however, New York City officials merged the Astor Library with the Lennox Library and the Tilden Trust to create the New York Public Library. The front of the current building still proudly shows visitors Astor’s mission: The Astor Library Founded By John Jacob Astor For The Advancement Of Useful Knowledge MDCCCXLVIII. Inside, the first room is still called Astor Hall, capturing the spirit of Astor in the library. Astor accumulated his fortune in order to provide for his family and hence he made a will that assured that none of his children, grandchildren, and other kin would ever experience the kind of poverty that he had endured during his childhood. In return he demanded success and discipline from his heirs; he expected eagerness, diligence, and entrepreneurial achievements from all members of the family and punished underachievers, who did not help increase the family fortune, by withdrawing care and financial support. When John Jacob Astor died, he was proud patriarch of his family and a respected member of New York’s elite. William Astor was his primary heir. He succeeded his father as patriarch of the family and inherited the title of the richest man in the United States. The name “Astor” developed into a “brand” that became synonymous with luxury, wealth, exquisite products, and exceptional hotels for over two hundred years. Both the famous Waldorf-Astoria Hotel and the Hotel Astor in New York were founded by two of John Jacob Astor’s great-grandsons. Movie lovers might remember Astor Pictures, a production company that existed until 1956, and the actress Lucile Langhanke, whose career took off after she started to perform under the name Mary Astor. Then there is Margret Astor, founder of the famous line of cosmetic products, and Astor cigarettes, the ones with the elegant red packaging. Not to mention the first American settlement on the Pacific Ocean named Astoria when it was founded in 1811 by Astor’s fur traders near the mouth of the Columbia River. New Yorkers encounter the Astor name all over the city. There is Astor Place, Astor Boulevard, the Astor District, and the former Astor (now the New York Public) Library. In the southwestern German town of Walldorf visitors will note the Astorhaus, John Jakob Astor Street, and FC-Astoria Walldorf, the local soccer club. John Jacob Astor’s wealth was so exceptional in the first half of the nineteenth century that his career set a new benchmark for entrepreneurial success in the United States. His fortune was so outstanding that it encouraged contemporaries to integrate tales of it in the founding myths of his adopted homeland. Admirers, as well as critics, have shaped public opinion about Astor, the former praising his business sense, economic foresight, and his courage to follow his instincts to the fullest measure he deemed reasonable, the latter seeing him as a greedy capitalist lacking any sense of the moral obligations expected of a republican citizen, especially in the Jacksonian era when Astor was caught in the middle of the national debate between economic liberalism and republicanism. In the 1850s a negative image of Astor gained prominence and became the dominant narrative for his biography. A close and careful reading of the archival sources, however, reveal a man who worked hard to make his way from poverty to wealth—extraordinary wealth— someone who was always enthusiastic about his projects and tried roads untraveled in order to advance his business ventures and make a better life for himself and his family. Astor had excellent business instincts and social skills, invested in projects with a high profit potential and limited risk, and followed his visions without compromise, though not to the point of recklessness. He diversified his investment portfolio when this concept was far from being an established entrepreneurial principle. He never relied on returns from a single product, service, or project; he always developed a fallback plan so that failures would not wipe him out completely; he seized opportunities and turned his engagement in pursuits that interested him into new branches of entrepreneurial activity and investment. He was skillful at building reliable networks in financial, social, and political circles and, as a consequence, gained profitable access to presidents, governors, senators, mayors, merchants, and bankers. Astor’s business practices were a model for American entrepreneurship in later periods. He focused on sales of high-end consumer goods and real estate development, keeping his investments low and the turnover high. Unlike economic giants of later decades, such as Cornelius Vanderbilt and John D. Rockefeller, Astor never invested in precious metals like gold or silver. His broad portfolio based on mercantile trade and real estate investments made him virtually independent of economic trends and shortages in deliveries due to harvesting problems or changes in consumer preferences. If profits from one trade item fell, he simply added a new one. His entrepreneurial activities were essential for the development of the American fur trade in particular and the trans-Mississippi West in general. He was one of the engines for westward expansion and his commercial actions helped cement the United States’ claim to the Oregon Territory. Accounts of Astor’s success soon became a pull factor among potential German immigrants. The story that spread among Germans was the tale of the poor little boy who had become the richest man in America. The newspapers that targeted those eager to leave Germany were full of stories about Astor’s life and fortune. Every time economic circumstances worsened in Germany, newspapers recounted his example thereby motivating fellow countrymen to pursue their American dream. Often only after their arrival in New York did most new immigrants realize that the Astors were vastly and uncommonly rich, with John Jacob Astor’s experience representing the exception rather than the norm. In his later years, Astor engaged with German immigrants by establishing an office to assist new arrivals when they reached the city. He became president of the German Society of the City of New York, and provided various means for immigrants to improve their lives. In this instance, too, he followed a hands-on approach and supported those who had plans to establish themselves as merchants or craftsmen. He showed them how to take their first steps in this direction. He made his own successful business development the model for those who were as hard working and engaged as he was and his vision and accomplishments inspired and guided many other traders, merchants, and immigrants who attempted to follow in his footsteps. For his fellow Germans, he became a symbol of what an immigrant entrepreneur could achieve in the New World. All 2010 dollar conversions in the article, unless otherwise noted, are based on Samuel H. Williamson, "Seven Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a U.S. Dollar Amount, 1774 to present," MeasuringWorth, 2011, using the Consumer Price Index. Maria Magdalena Astor’s children were Peter (died in infancy), Georg Peter, Heinrich, Catherina, Melchior, and John Jacob. Christina Barbara Seybold Astor’s children were Maria Magdalena (died in infancy), Maria Magdalena, Anna Eva, Elisabetha, Sebastian and Maria Barbara. In 1788 Sarah gave birth to a daughter, the first of the couple’s eight children. She was named after John Jacob’s mother, Magdalena. Three of the children died as infants (Sarah, 1790; Henry, 1797; and their last son in 1802). Their first son, John Jacob II, was born in 1791, mentally impaired and in need of constant care throughout his life. In 1792 another son, William Backhouse, was born. He became the heir to the Astor business. When he was old enough Astor sent his son back to Germany, where William studied social sciences from 1810 to 1815 at the University of Göttingen. Dorothea (1795) was named after the wife of his brother Henry. Eliza (1801), the youngest daughter, was Astor’s favorite and therefore accompanied him when he traveled to Europe. Astor had his daughters educated by private teachers. He also sent them to institutes of higher education, like a girls’ school in Philadelphia and a college for young women in Middletown, Connecticut. In the 1790s, Astor continued to look for new ways to expand his business activities. Not all of his ventures succeeded, such as his unprofitable foray into the military arms trade. His effort to obtain canons and munitions to outfit American vessels that were threatened by French and British naval forces in the Atlantic proved short-lived. Cite this Entry "John Jacob Astor." (2020) In Immigrant Entrepreneurship, Retrieved January 19, 2020, from Immigrant Entrepreneurship: http://www.immigrantentrepreneurship.org/entry.php?rec=6 Emmerich, Alexander. "John Jacob Astor." In Immigrant Entrepreneurship: German-American Business Biographies, 1720 to the Present, vol. 1, edited by Marianne S. Wokeck. German Historical Institute. Last modified November 14, 2013. http://www.immigrantentrepreneurship.org/entry.php?rec=6 "John Jacob Astor," Immigrant Entrepreneurship, 2020, Immigrant Entrepreneurship. 19 Jan 2020 <http://www.immigrantentrepreneurship.org/entry.php?rec=6> Engraving of John Jacob Astor by George E. 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0.11766215413808823, 0.9029743671417236, 0.3236445188522339, 0.16409921646118164, -0.45355719327926636, -0.011419269256293774, 0.519307017326355, 0.01379849947988987, -0.18719737231731415, 0.4624665081501007, 0.18912121653556824, -0.14524506032466888, -0.5150349736213684, -0.6261595487594604, 0.04019054025411606, 0.19225668907165527, 0.1323099583387375, -0.11912202090024948, 0.4805406332015991, -0.619544506072998, 0.1477266103029251, 0.11223794519901276 ]	1	John Jacob Astor (born Johann Jakob Astor, July 17, 1763 in Walldorf, Margraviate of Baden; died: March 29, 1848 in New York City), was born in 1763 in Walldorf, near the cities of Heidelberg and Mannheim in the Margraviate of Baden (now part of the German state of Baden-Württemberg). Astor was among the first wave of German immigrants to arrive in the United States after the Declaration of Independence. Over the course of his career, he applied his great entrepreneurial talent to build the first modern American trade empire with partners in Europe, Asia, and the Americas. He dealt in luxury goods, such as musical instruments, furs, Chinese tea, and silk. Building on the wealth Astor realized from his trading endeavors, he accumulated the largest portion of his fortune from real estate ventures. He speculated in Manhattan real estate and opened the Astor House in 1836, the most famous and elegant American hotel of the period. By the time of his death in 1848, Astor had become the wealthiest man in the United States. His estate was worth twenty million dollars (approximately $570 million in 2010$) and included two hotels, one theater, and many other real estate holdings and buildings in New York City. Even by early-twenty-first-century standards, Astor remains one of the most successful entrepreneurs in American history. Astor’s birth on July 17, 1763, is recorded in the Reformed Church register in Walldorf. He was the sixth and last child of Maria Magdalena and Johann Jakob Astor, who had married in April of 1749. His father was a butcher, a trade very much dependent on the vagaries of the local agricultural economy and the varying wealth of his fellow villagers. When John Jacob was three, his recently widowed father married Christina Barbara Seybold and the elder Astor’s household continued to grow, cramping the large family into a small home. As the family grew, the elder children began to leave home one by one. The second eldest child, Heinrich, was the first Astor son to depart. In order to finance his passage to North America in 1775, Heinrich signed up as a Hessian mercenary to fight for the British in the American Revolution. Soon Heinrich changed his name to Henry and, once in North America, left the military. Georg Peter Astor, the eldest Astor child, left home in 1777 and established himself in London as a wooden instrument maker. The same year, Astor’s brother Melchior moved to a neighboring village to work as a butcher and later moved approximately 124 miles (approximately 200 kilometers) north to the community of Neuwied (near Koblenz) to work as a cook. As the eldest son from his father’s first marriage still living in Walldorf, John Jacob increasingly took on new responsibilities at home and in the family business. John Jacob attended a one-room school in Walldorf that had been established by the Reformed Church in 1737. Johann Valentine Jeune, the head teacher and a descendent of a French Huguenot, shared the teaching responsibilities with Reformed Pastor Johann Philip Steiner. Both educators enjoyed teaching John Jacob because he was talented and easy to motivate. Jeune introduced John Jacob to Calvinist ideas, including the belief that wealth was a reflection of God’s favor and that diligence and engagement were keys to wealth. John Jacob’s education ended in 1777 at age fourteen after his father demanded that he join the family trade. John Jacob obeyed dutifully at first, but when offered the opportunity to join his brother’s instrument building and selling business in London, he leapt at the prospect and convinced his father that such a move was in his, and his father’s, best interest. He left for London in 1780 at age seventeen, leaving behind a life with few prospects for betterment and financial security for a promising new start in the busy, metropolitan capital of Great Britain. John Jacob could not afford to pay for transportation to London, so he walked thirty miles to the river town of Speyer, where he sought employment as a Rhine raftsman in order to earn enough money to pay for the boat fare to Rotterdam and the passage to England. Life in the busy commercial metropolis of London met John Jacob’s expectations. He adapted easily to British life and acculturated rapidly. Astor officially anglicized his name during this period. He honed his business acumen and sales skills working in his brother’s instrument building shop. He was also an astute observer of other business opportunities, such as the sudden boom in demand for textiles due to British wartime needs. As the war neared its end, correspondence between John Jacob and his brother Henry in New York City convinced John Jacob that New Yorkers had a pent-up demand for luxury items. The Astor brothers were eager to cash in on this demand by starting a transatlantic trade in musical instruments. George would produce them in London and John Jacob would import and sell them in New York City. John Jacob left for the young United States two months after the Revolutionary War officially ended, embarking on the ship North Carolina in November of 1783 and arriving in Baltimore in the spring of 1784. After traveling to New York City, he reunited with his brother Henry, and prepared to start a business in which he could make money by applying his prior commercial experience, family connections, and fluency in English and German. Astor arrived in New York City with a few of his brother’s flutes and a small amount of money. He sold the musical instruments and used the profits to import additional instruments from England. Initially, his business activities did not cover his living expenses. John Jacob’s brother Henry helped him obtain supplemental employment as a delivery boy for a German-American baker named George Dieterich. In the following months John Jacob delivered bread and cakes to the costumers of the small bakery. In this way, he familiarized himself with his new environment. Within a few months of his arrival in the city, American fur trader Robert Bowne hired Astor to assist him with his business. Astor worked for Bowne for several months and learned how to buy and sell furs and prepare peltries. Astor would later put these skills to good use in his own import and trade enterprises. Henry Astor also introduced John Jacob to the congregation of the German Reformed Church of New York. John Jacob soon became an active member of the congregation, and served as the church’s treasurer from 1791 to 1797. In this important post, he was responsible for managing all of the congregation’s finances. The church provided Astor with a social network of German co-religionists, but he ultimately sought a means of entry into New York City’s well-established, upper-class society. His effort to cultivate relationships with upper-class New Yorkers was a direct outgrowth of his business interests. Only wealthy New Yorkers could afford the luxury items he imported from Europe. In the fall of 1785 he married Sarah Todd, who came from a family of Scottish origin that had resided in New York City for several generations. For Astor, his marriage to Sarah Todd not only brought personal happiness but also economic independence. Sara Todd Astor’s wedding dowry of $300 (approximately $7,000 in 2010$) was modest, but it enabled her husband to expand his small import business. He established his own shop, selling instruments, furs, and other imported luxury goods. Todd was a pious, loving, and business-minded wife and gradually became his most important business partner. She handled the family’s business affairs in New York whenever Astor was away from home. Sarah Todd’s dowry helped Astor expand his business, but the Todd family’s social connections permitted Astor true entry into upper-class society and enabled him to forge useful connections with merchants, traders, ship owners, and other New York elites. Sarah’s brother Adam was a sea captain with personal connections to many of the other captains and ship owners who delivered cargo to New York. This would prove to be a great asset to Astor’s import trade. Sarah’s stepsister also helped Astor establish many useful business contacts among New York’s merchants. John Whetten, Sarah’s nephew, was a naval officer who provided valuable introductions to ship owners. Astor worked with him often during his time on active duty and later Astor repeatedly gave Whetten command of his merchant ships. It was Astor’s development of the social and economic network to which his wife gave him entry that formed the basis for what became the Astor trade empire. Two years after his 1785 marriage, John Jacob joined the German Society of the City of New York, as had his brother before him, but unlike his religious commitment to the German Reformed Church, he showed little interest in German-American social issues. Instead, Astor became intrigued by the Freemasons and decided that the secret fraternal order might be a more effective venue than the German Society for cultivating business and social contacts with New York’s social and political elites. In 1789, he was officially accepted as member of Holland Lodge No. 8, which was part of the Grand Lodge of the State of New York. He enjoyed regular meetings with many of his fellow businessmen and other highly placed and powerful New Yorkers, including DeWitt Clinton, who became mayor of New York City and later governor of New York State, and George Clinton, who was DeWitt’s uncle and a close friend of Thomas Jefferson. Later, Astor became a senior warden of the lodge and ended his career as Master of the Holland Lodge. John Jacob Astor’s business thrived during this era, in part because the family lived relatively modestly and in part because he focused on accumulating capital and reinvesting the profits of his business ventures. In 1789, based on his brother’s advice, John Jacob expanded his business endeavors and began to invest in real estate in New York City. Land in Lower Manhattan was considered a good buy and was in high demand due of the large number of immigrants landing in the city each year. John Jacob approached his dealings in real estate cautiously at first. On May 18, 1789, he bought a lot on the corner of Bowery Lane and Elizabeth Street. Later that year, he bought the neighboring property from James Bolmer, who owned a restaurant nearby. Encouraged by the success of his early real estate transactions he expanded that aspect of his business and acquired more property. He moved his business from its location on Queen Street, where he lived with his wife and young daughter, to a new and bigger commercial space, which he rented at 40 Little Dock Street (now Water Street) in Manhattan. In 1794, he and his wife bought property for their family and business at 149 Broadway, right in the commercial heart of the city where New York’s rich and famous resided. Ten years after John Jacob emigrated from Walldorf, he owned a successful import business and was a substantial property owner, achievements that would have been impossible for him in the German village he left behind. In 1789, almost five years after his arrival in the United States, he became an American citizen and the following year, his name appeared among other prominent New York City merchants in the New York Directory and Register and he would continue to be prominently featured in the directory for the remainder of his life. The cold New York winter of 1788-1789 proved to be a boon for Astor’s fledgling import business. Local demand for furs increased dramatically and Astor could have sold many more if only he had had them in stock. To prevent future shortages, Astor decided to hunt for furs himself. He bought the necessary supplies in New York City and set out for the relatively unsettled northwestern corner of the state near the Canadian border and Lake Ontario. He targeted beavers and raccoons, because their furs were popular for coats, caps, and gloves. First, he followed Native American trails on foot, but soon he bought a canoe to move north more quickly. He slept outside and ate fish or meat from the animals he hunted. After a couple of weeks, he returned to New York City with many furs. With Sarah’s assistance, he dressed the animal skins skillfully and made a substantial profit selling them in his store. The large profit margin on furs fueled Astor’s ambition to expand his trade business. On subsequent trips, he brought beads, clothing, and wooden toys to trade with the Native Americans for furs and used the music from his flute to gain their trust in trade negotiations. Other merchants began to copy Astor’s trade practices. Trade routes were established throughout upstate New York and merchants began to look to Montreal in British Canada as a source for additional furs. British colonial regulations required that Canadian furs had to be exported to London before they could be imported to the United States. This made imported Canadian furs much more expensive in the New York market. After Jay’s Treaty loosened trade restrictions between Canada and the United States in 1796, Astor began to import furs from Montreal directly to New York City. The region around the Great Lakes became more accessible to American traders as a result of the treaty. Consequently, competition in the New York fur trade stiffened, but Astor continued to profit due to his head start and years of experience. Astor began to look for other outlets for his supply of furs. In 1800, he decided to enter the China trade. The first American-flag vessel had sailed to China in 1784, two years after the emperor of China had allowed certain merchants in Canton to trade with non-Chinese merchants. In the years that followed, Astor had watched the cautious steps taken by fellow New York merchants in the China trade. After careful research and meetings with fellow merchants and ship owners, Astor decided to ship furs and Hawaiian sandalwood to China and purchase silk, tea and spices for sale in New York. Silk was particularly important to Astor, since it was becoming fashionable in New York City and would complement his fur sales. Thomas Jefferson’s Embargo Act of 1807, which forbade American-flag shipping from leaving American ports for foreign destinations in response to attacks on American vessels by British and French warships during the Napoleonic Wars, halted Astor’s overseas trade endeavors. The embargo was nothing short of a financial catastrophe for Astor, particularly since he also faced serious competition in the Great Lakes fur trade from the British-Canadian North West and Hudson’s Bay Companies. Astor decided to outflank the powerful, continental fur-trading duopoly by establishing fur trading posts on the Pacific coast and cementing American claims to the Oregon Territory. Astor’s plan for trading posts on the Pacific depended on support from President Jefferson. In 1808 he wrote, confidentially, to his friend DeWitt Clinton and explained his expansion plan with the expectation that Clinton would use his family connections to secure presidential consideration of the proposal. At the time, DeWitt Clinton’s uncle, George Clinton, served as Jefferson’s vice president. In his first letter to the president on February 27, 1808, Astor asked for Jefferson’s permission to trade with the Native American tribes west of the Mississippi River. He also inquired about government assistance in the form of military support in the case of attacks by hostile Native Americans or the British. Jefferson was delighted with Astor’s letter because Astor’s plan mirrored his own vision of how the American West should be developed. An exchange of letters ensued in which Astor developed his idea of expanding American fur trading networks to the Pacific and impressed the president with his vision. Astor’s ambition was to gain control over the new fur trade in the relatively unexplored territories by establishing his own fur trading company. The company would provide structure and pace for the development of the West and would drive the British trading companies from United States territory. New York would serve as the enterprise’s headquarters. Astor intended to lay out his trading route from St. Louis to the Pacific following in the footsteps of Lewis and Clark’s expedition through the Louisiana Territory. He wanted to make use of the knowledge gained from the expedition, but more importantly he wanted to take advantage of the region’s geography to further his business activities. Following the Louisiana Purchase, the United States had gained control of the entire length of the Mississippi River and Astor planned to use the river as the main route into the Louisiana Territory. The natural network of regional rivers branching westward from the Mississippi would provide access to hunting grounds and trading posts in the trans-Mississippi West. The furs would be brought to St. Louis first, and then shipped down the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico where they would be loaded onto ships for the sea voyage to New York. Astor called his new business the American Fur Company, underscoring his own sense of patriotism. The trading company was incorporated for twenty-five years and capitalized with two million dollars (approximately $36 million in 2010$) in assets. Since Astor preferred to keep the company’s financial control in his own hands in order to increase the wealth of his family, he did not invite other investors to join the firm and tailored the organizational structure of the company to suit his needs. As the company’s sole owner, he made all the decisions and bore all the risk, sharing none with the nine managing directors he employed and who reported to him. The Embargo Act of 1807 and subsequent trade restrictions forced Astor to focus on American-based business endeavors. Trading in furs and real estate provided income and helped him accumulate wealth during these years. He invested his profits from the pre-embargo China trade into New York real estate. The city had grown significantly over the years, and Astor believed that more immigrants would continue to arrive from Europe. In fact, the number of New York City inhabitants doubled from 33,000 to 60,000 between1790 and 1800. Astor began to purchase real estate in Manhattan outside the original colonial city limits. By 1819 he had invested $715,000 (approximately $12 million in 2010$) in Manhattan real estate, an investment of most of his cash and liquid capital that paid off because the city continued to grow during the early decades of the nineteenth century. Astor continued to invest in real estate and housing from 1819 to 1834, when he stepped back as president of the American Fur Company. During these 15 years, Astor spent another $445,000 to acquire real estate and buildings. When he retreated from the fur trade after 1834, he entered a third phase of acquiring real estate. By then he had become convinced that the real estate business was the perfect business for him, because it allowed him to capitalize on the housing needs of thousands of immigrants arriving annually in New York City. He spent about $832,000 on real estate between the years 1834 and 1848. In total, he bought nearly two million dollars (approximately $57 million in 2010$) of Manhattan real estate, making his New York real estate endeavors the most important of all of his enterprises and providing the bulk of a fortune that far surpassed the wealth of all of his contemporaries. His courage to invest in unsettled farmland, his business instincts, and his foresight when it came to the future development, growth, and expansion of New York enabled him to become the richest man in America. Astor was always concerned about his public image. He often discussed it with his advisors, and followed their strategy in order to make sure that his name was always associated with positive achievements and economic success and that only the most successful or most prestigious projects would bear the name Astor. Accordingly, the outpost in the Oregon Territory on the Pacific coast was named “Astoria,” his most prestigious hotel was the Astor House, the library he donated was the Astor Library, and in his will he provided funds for the construction and operation of a poorhouse in his hometown of Walldorf, named Astorhaus, which opened in 1854. Astor’s donation to the library represented his most significant philanthropic project. He wanted to enable all New Yorkers to educate themselves regardless of class. Astor was grateful for the education he had enjoyed as a relatively poor child in Walldorf, and he cherished learning as a highly valuable good. The Astor Library was first located on Astor Place, formerly Lafayette Square, close to William Backhouse Astor’s house, an Astor landmark in his beloved city. About fifty years after Astor’s death, however, New York City officials merged the Astor Library with the Lennox Library and the Tilden Trust to create the New York Public Library. The front of the current building still proudly shows visitors Astor’s mission: The Astor Library Founded By John Jacob Astor For The Advancement Of Useful Knowledge MDCCCXLVIII. Inside, the first room is still called Astor Hall, capturing the spirit of Astor in the library. Astor accumulated his fortune in order to provide for his family and hence he made a will that assured that none of his children, grandchildren, and other kin would ever experience the kind of poverty that he had endured during his childhood. In return he demanded success and discipline from his heirs; he expected eagerness, diligence, and entrepreneurial achievements from all members of the family and punished underachievers, who did not help increase the family fortune, by withdrawing care and financial support. When John Jacob Astor died, he was proud patriarch of his family and a respected member of New York’s elite. William Astor was his primary heir. He succeeded his father as patriarch of the family and inherited the title of the richest man in the United States. The name “Astor” developed into a “brand” that became synonymous with luxury, wealth, exquisite products, and exceptional hotels for over two hundred years. Both the famous Waldorf-Astoria Hotel and the Hotel Astor in New York were founded by two of John Jacob Astor’s great-grandsons. Movie lovers might remember Astor Pictures, a production company that existed until 1956, and the actress Lucile Langhanke, whose career took off after she started to perform under the name Mary Astor. Then there is Margret Astor, founder of the famous line of cosmetic products, and Astor cigarettes, the ones with the elegant red packaging. Not to mention the first American settlement on the Pacific Ocean named Astoria when it was founded in 1811 by Astor’s fur traders near the mouth of the Columbia River. New Yorkers encounter the Astor name all over the city. There is Astor Place, Astor Boulevard, the Astor District, and the former Astor (now the New York Public) Library. In the southwestern German town of Walldorf visitors will note the Astorhaus, John Jakob Astor Street, and FC-Astoria Walldorf, the local soccer club. John Jacob Astor’s wealth was so exceptional in the first half of the nineteenth century that his career set a new benchmark for entrepreneurial success in the United States. His fortune was so outstanding that it encouraged contemporaries to integrate tales of it in the founding myths of his adopted homeland. Admirers, as well as critics, have shaped public opinion about Astor, the former praising his business sense, economic foresight, and his courage to follow his instincts to the fullest measure he deemed reasonable, the latter seeing him as a greedy capitalist lacking any sense of the moral obligations expected of a republican citizen, especially in the Jacksonian era when Astor was caught in the middle of the national debate between economic liberalism and republicanism. In the 1850s a negative image of Astor gained prominence and became the dominant narrative for his biography. A close and careful reading of the archival sources, however, reveal a man who worked hard to make his way from poverty to wealth—extraordinary wealth— someone who was always enthusiastic about his projects and tried roads untraveled in order to advance his business ventures and make a better life for himself and his family. Astor had excellent business instincts and social skills, invested in projects with a high profit potential and limited risk, and followed his visions without compromise, though not to the point of recklessness. He diversified his investment portfolio when this concept was far from being an established entrepreneurial principle. He never relied on returns from a single product, service, or project; he always developed a fallback plan so that failures would not wipe him out completely; he seized opportunities and turned his engagement in pursuits that interested him into new branches of entrepreneurial activity and investment. He was skillful at building reliable networks in financial, social, and political circles and, as a consequence, gained profitable access to presidents, governors, senators, mayors, merchants, and bankers. Astor’s business practices were a model for American entrepreneurship in later periods. He focused on sales of high-end consumer goods and real estate development, keeping his investments low and the turnover high. Unlike economic giants of later decades, such as Cornelius Vanderbilt and John D. Rockefeller, Astor never invested in precious metals like gold or silver. His broad portfolio based on mercantile trade and real estate investments made him virtually independent of economic trends and shortages in deliveries due to harvesting problems or changes in consumer preferences. If profits from one trade item fell, he simply added a new one. His entrepreneurial activities were essential for the development of the American fur trade in particular and the trans-Mississippi West in general. He was one of the engines for westward expansion and his commercial actions helped cement the United States’ claim to the Oregon Territory. Accounts of Astor’s success soon became a pull factor among potential German immigrants. The story that spread among Germans was the tale of the poor little boy who had become the richest man in America. The newspapers that targeted those eager to leave Germany were full of stories about Astor’s life and fortune. Every time economic circumstances worsened in Germany, newspapers recounted his example thereby motivating fellow countrymen to pursue their American dream. Often only after their arrival in New York did most new immigrants realize that the Astors were vastly and uncommonly rich, with John Jacob Astor’s experience representing the exception rather than the norm. In his later years, Astor engaged with German immigrants by establishing an office to assist new arrivals when they reached the city. He became president of the German Society of the City of New York, and provided various means for immigrants to improve their lives. In this instance, too, he followed a hands-on approach and supported those who had plans to establish themselves as merchants or craftsmen. He showed them how to take their first steps in this direction. He made his own successful business development the model for those who were as hard working and engaged as he was and his vision and accomplishments inspired and guided many other traders, merchants, and immigrants who attempted to follow in his footsteps. For his fellow Germans, he became a symbol of what an immigrant entrepreneur could achieve in the New World. All 2010 dollar conversions in the article, unless otherwise noted, are based on Samuel H. Williamson, "Seven Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a U.S. Dollar Amount, 1774 to present," MeasuringWorth, 2011, using the Consumer Price Index. Maria Magdalena Astor’s children were Peter (died in infancy), Georg Peter, Heinrich, Catherina, Melchior, and John Jacob. Christina Barbara Seybold Astor’s children were Maria Magdalena (died in infancy), Maria Magdalena, Anna Eva, Elisabetha, Sebastian and Maria Barbara. In 1788 Sarah gave birth to a daughter, the first of the couple’s eight children. She was named after John Jacob’s mother, Magdalena. Three of the children died as infants (Sarah, 1790; Henry, 1797; and their last son in 1802). Their first son, John Jacob II, was born in 1791, mentally impaired and in need of constant care throughout his life. In 1792 another son, William Backhouse, was born. He became the heir to the Astor business. When he was old enough Astor sent his son back to Germany, where William studied social sciences from 1810 to 1815 at the University of Göttingen. Dorothea (1795) was named after the wife of his brother Henry. Eliza (1801), the youngest daughter, was Astor’s favorite and therefore accompanied him when he traveled to Europe. Astor had his daughters educated by private teachers. He also sent them to institutes of higher education, like a girls’ school in Philadelphia and a college for young women in Middletown, Connecticut. In the 1790s, Astor continued to look for new ways to expand his business activities. Not all of his ventures succeeded, such as his unprofitable foray into the military arms trade. His effort to obtain canons and munitions to outfit American vessels that were threatened by French and British naval forces in the Atlantic proved short-lived. Cite this Entry "John Jacob Astor." (2020) In Immigrant Entrepreneurship, Retrieved January 19, 2020, from Immigrant Entrepreneurship: http://www.immigrantentrepreneurship.org/entry.php?rec=6 Emmerich, Alexander. "John Jacob Astor." In Immigrant Entrepreneurship: German-American Business Biographies, 1720 to the Present, vol. 1, edited by Marianne S. Wokeck. German Historical Institute. Last modified November 14, 2013. http://www.immigrantentrepreneurship.org/entry.php?rec=6 "John Jacob Astor," Immigrant Entrepreneurship, 2020, Immigrant Entrepreneurship. 19 Jan 2020 <http://www.immigrantentrepreneurship.org/entry.php?rec=6> Engraving of John Jacob Astor by George E. Perine, circa 1795.	6,388	ENGLISH	1
Below is a detailed article about the English Interregnum – an interesting period in British History when the British empire had no King or Queen. Many questions arise as to how the administration took place, which body was in charge and whose rule led to this situation. Let us discuss these questions below. Definition – English Interregnum The word Interregnum refers to a period where a throne is vacant between to successive regimes. At this time, government control is at a halt. Instead of government control, there is more of parliamentary and military control in the Interregnum. It is a period when normal government functions are suspended. Such a period in British history is known as the English Interregnum. It took place right after the execution of Charles I of England. The period marked by military and parliamentary control after the English civil war is known as the English Interregnum. It began in the year 1649 when Charles I was executed and ended when Charles II became king after the death of Oliver Cromwell in the year 1660. Why was Charles I of England executed? King Charles, I of England was executed for treason. He was beheaded in London on January 30, 1649. In the year 1625, he ascended the throne. He then married a Catholic French Princess which offended his protestant subjects. Due to protests by the Parliament and political opposition, he dissolved the parliament in the year 1629. He continued to rule entirely by himself in the following year. All these impromptu and not devised decisions led to the outbreak of the English civil war in 1642 between the parliament and the king. The group of Parliamentarians was led by Oliver Cromwell – an English military and political leader; also known as the Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. There were two civil wars between the royalists and the parliamentarians in the years 1644 and 1645. In 1646, King Charles finally surrendered to the Scottish army. After two years, he was bought to the high court that was controlled by his enemies. He was sentenced to death and taken down to be executed. Periods in the English Interregnum The English Interregnum is further divided into four sub-periods, The first period of the Commonwealth of England The first period of the Commonwealth of England began in the year 1649. It was the republican government that ruled in the absence of the monarchy. The Commonwealth was declared right after the death of Charles I of England by the Rump Parliament which was a name given to the British Parliament until 1660. The rule began in 1649 and lasted until 1653 before the rise of Oliver Cromwell. The Protectorate under Oliver Cromwell The Protectorate refers to the period when the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. The Rump Parliament was brought down from the control by the army led by Oliver Cromwell. An election of the Lord Protector was held on December 1653 by the constitution which was won by Cromwell for service until his death. The constitution divided the powers between the Parliament and the Council of State. The Cromwellian government was one of the first experiments of a military dictatorship in the world. The Protectorate under Richard Cromwell After the death of his father, Richard Cromwell inherited the position of Lord Protectorate from his father Oliver Cromwell. He was an English Statesman and eventually became the Lord Protectorate of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. After attaining this position it became clear that Richard lacked authority. He made attempts to mediate between the army and the civil society. He had to handle the Parliament which was full of two socialist groups that highly opposed each other – the Royalists and the Presbyterians. After a few months of his control on the government, he received threats from the army after which he formally resigned in 1659. He reigned for roughly over 8 months. This was the second period of Protectorate in the English Interregnum. It began in September 1658 and ended on May 1659. He bore the title – His Highness By the Grace of God and Republic, Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland. The second period of the Commonwealth of England There was a rough period from 1659 to 1660 when the rule of England was passed back to republican government. This time the army wasted no further time and declared the son of King Charles I, Charles II the King of England. Thus, the restoration of England began. The monarchy of England was restored once again and the period of unstable governance in England came to an end. Life during the English Interregnum There was a spread of protestants in England during the English Interregnum. Richard Cromwell himself was a protestant, rather a ‘puritan’ which was a strict group of white protestants who had some uncompromising bible standards. Although there was religious freedom in England, the protestant methods were spread across the masses. Catholic holidays such as Christmas and Easter were looked down on. He also banned theatre which limited people’s entertainment. 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Many questions arise as to how the administration took place, which body was in charge and whose rule led to this situation. Let us discuss these questions below. Definition – English Interregnum The word Interregnum refers to a period where a throne is vacant between to successive regimes. At this time, government control is at a halt. Instead of government control, there is more of parliamentary and military control in the Interregnum. It is a period when normal government functions are suspended. Such a period in British history is known as the English Interregnum. It took place right after the execution of Charles I of England. The period marked by military and parliamentary control after the English civil war is known as the English Interregnum. It began in the year 1649 when Charles I was executed and ended when Charles II became king after the death of Oliver Cromwell in the year 1660. Why was Charles I of England executed? King Charles, I of England was executed for treason. He was beheaded in London on January 30, 1649. In the year 1625, he ascended the throne. He then married a Catholic French Princess which offended his protestant subjects. Due to protests by the Parliament and political opposition, he dissolved the parliament in the year 1629. He continued to rule entirely by himself in the following year. All these impromptu and not devised decisions led to the outbreak of the English civil war in 1642 between the parliament and the king. The group of Parliamentarians was led by Oliver Cromwell – an English military and political leader; also known as the Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. There were two civil wars between the royalists and the parliamentarians in the years 1644 and 1645. In 1646, King Charles finally surrendered to the Scottish army. After two years, he was bought to the high court that was controlled by his enemies. He was sentenced to death and taken down to be executed. Periods in the English Interregnum The English Interregnum is further divided into four sub-periods, The first period of the Commonwealth of England The first period of the Commonwealth of England began in the year 1649. It was the republican government that ruled in the absence of the monarchy. The Commonwealth was declared right after the death of Charles I of England by the Rump Parliament which was a name given to the British Parliament until 1660. The rule began in 1649 and lasted until 1653 before the rise of Oliver Cromwell. The Protectorate under Oliver Cromwell The Protectorate refers to the period when the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. The Rump Parliament was brought down from the control by the army led by Oliver Cromwell. An election of the Lord Protector was held on December 1653 by the constitution which was won by Cromwell for service until his death. The constitution divided the powers between the Parliament and the Council of State. The Cromwellian government was one of the first experiments of a military dictatorship in the world. The Protectorate under Richard Cromwell After the death of his father, Richard Cromwell inherited the position of Lord Protectorate from his father Oliver Cromwell. He was an English Statesman and eventually became the Lord Protectorate of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. After attaining this position it became clear that Richard lacked authority. He made attempts to mediate between the army and the civil society. He had to handle the Parliament which was full of two socialist groups that highly opposed each other – the Royalists and the Presbyterians. After a few months of his control on the government, he received threats from the army after which he formally resigned in 1659. He reigned for roughly over 8 months. This was the second period of Protectorate in the English Interregnum. It began in September 1658 and ended on May 1659. He bore the title – His Highness By the Grace of God and Republic, Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland. The second period of the Commonwealth of England There was a rough period from 1659 to 1660 when the rule of England was passed back to republican government. This time the army wasted no further time and declared the son of King Charles I, Charles II the King of England. Thus, the restoration of England began. The monarchy of England was restored once again and the period of unstable governance in England came to an end. Life during the English Interregnum There was a spread of protestants in England during the English Interregnum. Richard Cromwell himself was a protestant, rather a ‘puritan’ which was a strict group of white protestants who had some uncompromising bible standards. Although there was religious freedom in England, the protestant methods were spread across the masses. Catholic holidays such as Christmas and Easter were looked down on. He also banned theatre which limited people’s entertainment. Many commenters call his rule ‘harsh and tyrannical’.	1,099	ENGLISH	1
During the 1940s Segregation was practised throughout the USA, although it was beginning to be challenged by the 1950s. During the 1950s there was an apparent rapid increase in the battle against segregation and discrimination. The aim of reaching racial equality was set to be achieved by a three stage plan, which involved making people aware that segregation was not a good thing, to put an end to it and to make it illegal (unconstitutional). Achieving these would give Black Americans moral, political, economic and legal power. It believed in deliberate action to force the government to make changes in the law. In the late 1940s President Truman had backed the campaign but he did not make much progress during his presidency, after the war he attempted to improve the legal position of the black population were vetoed by congress. Then when Eisenhower came to power his dislike to government intervention led to many successes for the black population in the courts. The late 1940s, early 1950s there was an economic boom, there was a labour shortage and as a result wages went up and led to a consumer boom. This gave rise to blacks having economic power, due to higher disposable incomes. The first attempt at trying to abolish segregation in the southern states was taken by trying to obtain legal power through court cases. The first conflict erupted in the early 1950s over the issue of desegregating schools. In 1954 the Brown case was the first step in the campaign against segregation and it began with an attack on the education system. Oliver Brown decided to challenge segregated schools in Topeka, Kansas. Brown was angered that he could not sent his daughter to a whites-only school which was closer to where he lived but had to send his daughter to all-black school 20 blocks away as opposed to only 5 blocks away. To give the case some support and backing the NAACP decided to join Brown in his appeal to the Supreme Court. The NAACP felt they had a good chance of success, as they had already chipped away at the ‘separate but equal’ decision of the courts and also due to the fact that Kansas was not a southern state. The NAACP’s lawyer Thurgood Marshall represented Brown before the Supreme Court and argued that segregation was against the fourteenth amendment. The Supreme Court agreed and Chief Justice Earl Warren even believed that even if facilities were equal, separate education was psychologically harmful to black children. This was a break through on the path to desegregation and was in defiance of President Eisenhower’s wishes. Once again conflict erupted with the Montgomery bus boycott, which was triggered by an event which occurred the previous year. In 1955 Mrs Rosa Parks was travelling home on a bus and refused to give up her seat for a white man to sit. She was arrested and charged with a violation of the Montgomery city bus segregation ordinance. This stunt had been premeditated. She had joined the NAACP in 1943 and had become Montgomery branch secretary. It was through this position that she was chosen to challenge the Montgomery bus laws. They had planned to use Claudette Colvin who had been arrested in 1955 but was a pregnant, unmarried teenager who had been accused of assault, Rosa Parks was a far better test case. They wanted the best of everything to ensure a victorious outcome. Support was gathered from the black community, the black Alabama state college helped her, students distributed propaganda leaflets to elicit total support. The NAACP also increased their involvement with church leaders to increase working-class black participation, it also helped them take the moral high ground. The blacks gained economic power through this boycott because their refusing to use the bus service was having large impact on the white bus owners’ pocket, they were loosing money. The campaign against segregation was led by Martin Luther King, a Baptist Minister who believed that change could be “provoked” through peaceful means. As president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, King became the leader of the peaceful campaign to achieve equal rights. King was a good speaker, he argued in threes which made them very effective and he brought morality into the argument with words like ‘evil’. King was a compromise candidate because he believed in a bit of everything; legal, moral, economic not just concentrating on one which had failed previously. By using the church there was no need for legal reasons as they had the moral arguments. They had cleverly orchestrated a campaign; step by step, which include students and the church which could not be accused of being communist because they were anti-communist. After the cold war, social developments at home helped the issue of black civil rights to come to the forefront. Some people experienced racial integration during the war, when they went to the UK and other European countries. The blacks who went abroad found integration but realised that they themselves lived in ‘the land of the free’, but in reality were not and this triggered the need for change back home. In crowded wartime cities, blacks and whites had found themselves in closer proximity than usual. This caused tension especially in the south. The war presented blacks with job opportunities. However segregation was preserved in civilian life and in the military. Despite the opening of new factories across America, many of them initially refused to employ blacks. The segregated armed forces damaged the morale of some blacks but increased the incentive for change for others. The trend towards integration was highlighted by President Truman’s decision to abolish the race quota for the armed services in 1948. Media power had increased, and had been played upon by Martin Luther King. A very important method of forcing change was to take cases of discrimination to the Supreme Court. This meant that the Constitution could be used to protect and extend the rights of blacks. The black’s actions were opposed by violent white youths and KKK men, these caused many riots and conflicts. In which the government would have to act upon and make changes but the blacks were looked upon as peaceful even though they had caused violence to occur as a direct result of their actions. In 1957 in Little Rock 9 blacks students attempted to enter Central High School and suffered a lot of abuse and racist comments. However, one girl, Elizabeth Eckford, had to walk up the street to the school on her own, facing many comments such as ‘lynch her’ but she proceeded with dignity. In Little rock the blacks were playing the ‘race card’ to cause uproar, both within the white community and the media. They had photographs taken of black students. It had resulted in the blacks taking the moral high ground, the NAACP had what they wanted ‘propaganda’. The image of black children being harassed and spat at by aggressive white adults, helped influence moderate white opinion and was a victory for the NAACP. Mass migration of over 6 million blacks from rural south to the great cities of the north between 1910 and 1970, also added to the beginnings of a strong campaign, with economical backing. As the industrialised north offered greater economic opportunities for the blacks. As a result of the economic boom, blacks had more money and had gained economic power. The northern blacks started to give their financial support, because economic power was mainly in the industrialised north. In conclusion I believe an organised campaign against segregation and discrimination emerged during the 1950s due to previous failed attempts, including Booker T. Washington’s accommodationalist, passivist approach to civil equality through economic power. Du Bois’ activist approach to economic equality through civil equality had also not been successful then Truman’s attempt at achieving civil rights for blacks had not been accomplished. Although he had increased awareness of the need for greater equality, with the FEPC and had decreased discrimination in federal employment and contracts. There were a number of various developments which occurred during the 1950s which gave way for a campaign against segregation. After 1945, the anti-communism mood of the cold war made militant campaigning more difficult, although it did raise the issue of racist attitudes in the ‘land of the free’. The NAACP had concentrated on legal campaigns and eventually achieved success in 1954 with the Brown case, although a white backlash to its success led to the destruction of many southern branches. In 1956 it was even outlawed in Alabama. The brown case was a major breakthrough for the Civil Rights Movement, even thought it did not bring about the standard of change that was first anticipated. Also the event which took place at Little Rock was an important date in the history of civil rights in the 1950s, although it had not been a typical one. There had also been some presidential support of civil rights, but this had a limited effect, a more direct, organised campaign against segregation was the answer.	<urn:uuid:c0dcc227-024c-4bfa-b8c8-df1dd1ddb0c5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://yorkepeninsulaaccommodation.com/why-did-an-organised-campaign-against-segregation-and-discrimination-emerge-in-the-southern-states-during-the-1950s/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00412.warc.gz	en	0.990288	1,761	4.3125	4	[ -0.660810112953186, -0.13848379254341125, 0.03762080520391464, -0.15592902898788452, -0.2992396354675293, 0.3485163748264313, -0.3149675130844116, -0.12932603061199188, -0.17814901471138, 0.16287554800510406, 0.35592174530029297, 0.11308902502059937, -0.09954829514026642, 0.23408354818820953, -0.08719688653945923, 0.5138695240020752, -0.23223842680454254, 0.46997198462486267, -1.1309735774993896, 0.10293923318386078, -0.18177777528762817, 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During the 1950s there was an apparent rapid increase in the battle against segregation and discrimination. The aim of reaching racial equality was set to be achieved by a three stage plan, which involved making people aware that segregation was not a good thing, to put an end to it and to make it illegal (unconstitutional). Achieving these would give Black Americans moral, political, economic and legal power. It believed in deliberate action to force the government to make changes in the law. In the late 1940s President Truman had backed the campaign but he did not make much progress during his presidency, after the war he attempted to improve the legal position of the black population were vetoed by congress. Then when Eisenhower came to power his dislike to government intervention led to many successes for the black population in the courts. The late 1940s, early 1950s there was an economic boom, there was a labour shortage and as a result wages went up and led to a consumer boom. This gave rise to blacks having economic power, due to higher disposable incomes. The first attempt at trying to abolish segregation in the southern states was taken by trying to obtain legal power through court cases. The first conflict erupted in the early 1950s over the issue of desegregating schools. In 1954 the Brown case was the first step in the campaign against segregation and it began with an attack on the education system. Oliver Brown decided to challenge segregated schools in Topeka, Kansas. Brown was angered that he could not sent his daughter to a whites-only school which was closer to where he lived but had to send his daughter to all-black school 20 blocks away as opposed to only 5 blocks away. To give the case some support and backing the NAACP decided to join Brown in his appeal to the Supreme Court. The NAACP felt they had a good chance of success, as they had already chipped away at the ‘separate but equal’ decision of the courts and also due to the fact that Kansas was not a southern state. The NAACP’s lawyer Thurgood Marshall represented Brown before the Supreme Court and argued that segregation was against the fourteenth amendment. The Supreme Court agreed and Chief Justice Earl Warren even believed that even if facilities were equal, separate education was psychologically harmful to black children. This was a break through on the path to desegregation and was in defiance of President Eisenhower’s wishes. Once again conflict erupted with the Montgomery bus boycott, which was triggered by an event which occurred the previous year. In 1955 Mrs Rosa Parks was travelling home on a bus and refused to give up her seat for a white man to sit. She was arrested and charged with a violation of the Montgomery city bus segregation ordinance. This stunt had been premeditated. She had joined the NAACP in 1943 and had become Montgomery branch secretary. It was through this position that she was chosen to challenge the Montgomery bus laws. They had planned to use Claudette Colvin who had been arrested in 1955 but was a pregnant, unmarried teenager who had been accused of assault, Rosa Parks was a far better test case. They wanted the best of everything to ensure a victorious outcome. Support was gathered from the black community, the black Alabama state college helped her, students distributed propaganda leaflets to elicit total support. The NAACP also increased their involvement with church leaders to increase working-class black participation, it also helped them take the moral high ground. The blacks gained economic power through this boycott because their refusing to use the bus service was having large impact on the white bus owners’ pocket, they were loosing money. The campaign against segregation was led by Martin Luther King, a Baptist Minister who believed that change could be “provoked” through peaceful means. As president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, King became the leader of the peaceful campaign to achieve equal rights. King was a good speaker, he argued in threes which made them very effective and he brought morality into the argument with words like ‘evil’. King was a compromise candidate because he believed in a bit of everything; legal, moral, economic not just concentrating on one which had failed previously. By using the church there was no need for legal reasons as they had the moral arguments. They had cleverly orchestrated a campaign; step by step, which include students and the church which could not be accused of being communist because they were anti-communist. After the cold war, social developments at home helped the issue of black civil rights to come to the forefront. Some people experienced racial integration during the war, when they went to the UK and other European countries. The blacks who went abroad found integration but realised that they themselves lived in ‘the land of the free’, but in reality were not and this triggered the need for change back home. In crowded wartime cities, blacks and whites had found themselves in closer proximity than usual. This caused tension especially in the south. The war presented blacks with job opportunities. However segregation was preserved in civilian life and in the military. Despite the opening of new factories across America, many of them initially refused to employ blacks. The segregated armed forces damaged the morale of some blacks but increased the incentive for change for others. The trend towards integration was highlighted by President Truman’s decision to abolish the race quota for the armed services in 1948. Media power had increased, and had been played upon by Martin Luther King. A very important method of forcing change was to take cases of discrimination to the Supreme Court. This meant that the Constitution could be used to protect and extend the rights of blacks. The black’s actions were opposed by violent white youths and KKK men, these caused many riots and conflicts. In which the government would have to act upon and make changes but the blacks were looked upon as peaceful even though they had caused violence to occur as a direct result of their actions. In 1957 in Little Rock 9 blacks students attempted to enter Central High School and suffered a lot of abuse and racist comments. However, one girl, Elizabeth Eckford, had to walk up the street to the school on her own, facing many comments such as ‘lynch her’ but she proceeded with dignity. In Little rock the blacks were playing the ‘race card’ to cause uproar, both within the white community and the media. They had photographs taken of black students. It had resulted in the blacks taking the moral high ground, the NAACP had what they wanted ‘propaganda’. The image of black children being harassed and spat at by aggressive white adults, helped influence moderate white opinion and was a victory for the NAACP. Mass migration of over 6 million blacks from rural south to the great cities of the north between 1910 and 1970, also added to the beginnings of a strong campaign, with economical backing. As the industrialised north offered greater economic opportunities for the blacks. As a result of the economic boom, blacks had more money and had gained economic power. The northern blacks started to give their financial support, because economic power was mainly in the industrialised north. In conclusion I believe an organised campaign against segregation and discrimination emerged during the 1950s due to previous failed attempts, including Booker T. Washington’s accommodationalist, passivist approach to civil equality through economic power. Du Bois’ activist approach to economic equality through civil equality had also not been successful then Truman’s attempt at achieving civil rights for blacks had not been accomplished. Although he had increased awareness of the need for greater equality, with the FEPC and had decreased discrimination in federal employment and contracts. There were a number of various developments which occurred during the 1950s which gave way for a campaign against segregation. After 1945, the anti-communism mood of the cold war made militant campaigning more difficult, although it did raise the issue of racist attitudes in the ‘land of the free’. The NAACP had concentrated on legal campaigns and eventually achieved success in 1954 with the Brown case, although a white backlash to its success led to the destruction of many southern branches. In 1956 it was even outlawed in Alabama. The brown case was a major breakthrough for the Civil Rights Movement, even thought it did not bring about the standard of change that was first anticipated. Also the event which took place at Little Rock was an important date in the history of civil rights in the 1950s, although it had not been a typical one. There had also been some presidential support of civil rights, but this had a limited effect, a more direct, organised campaign against segregation was the answer.	1,813	ENGLISH	1
People - Ancient Egypt: Ramesses II (Usermaatresetepenre) NEW KINGDOM 19th Dynasty (1279-1213) Extreme prosperity and renaissance in art and building projects mark the beginning of this period. Towards the end of the 19th Dynasty the increasing power of the priesthood corrupts the central government. During the 20th Dynasty tomb robbing is done by officials. The priesthood becomes hereditary and begins to assume secular power. The government breaks down. Ramesses II (Usermaatresetepenre) The son of Seti I and Queen Tuya was the third king of the 19th Dynasty. Called Ramesses the Great, he lived to be 96 years old, had 200 wives and concubines, 96 sons and 60 daughters. One son, Prince Khaemwese, was a high priest of Ptah, governor of Memphis, and was in charge of the restoration of the Pyramid of Unas. This son was buried in The Serapeum. Ramesses II outlived the first thirteen of his heirs. Ramesses was named co-ruler with his father, Seti I, early in his life. He accompanied his father on numerous campaigns in Libya and Nubia. At the age of 22 Ramesses went on a campaign in Nubia with two of his own sons. Seti I and Ramesses built a palace in Avaris where Ramesses I had started a new capital. When Seti I died in 1290 B.C., Ramesses assumed the throne and began a series of wars against the Syrians. The famous Battle of Kadesh is inscribed on the walls of Ramesses temple. Ramesses' building accomplishments are two temples at Abu Simbel, the hypostyle hall at Karnak, a mortuary complex at Abydos, the Colossus of Ramesses at Memphis, a vast tomb at Thebes, additions at the Luxor Temple, and the famous Ramesseum. Among Ramesses' wives were Nefertari, Queen Istnofret, his two daughters, Binthanath and Merytamon, and the Hittite princess, Maathornefrure. Ramesses was originally buried in his tomb in the Valley of the Kings. Because of the widespread looting of tombs during the 21st Dynasty the priests removed Ramesses body and took it to a holding area where the valuable materials such, as gold-leaf and semi- precious inlays, were removed. The body was then rewrapped and taken to the tomb of an 18th Dynasty queen, Inhapi. The bodies of Ramesses I and Seti I were done in like fashion and all ended up at the same place. Amenhotep I's body had been placed there as well at an earlier time. Seventy-two hours later, all of the bodies were again moved, this time to the Royal Cache that was inside the tomb of High Priest Pinudjem II. The priests documented all of this on the linen that covered the bodies. This "systematic" looting by the priests was done in the guise of protecting the bodies from the "common" thieves. Ramesses was followed to the throne by his thirteenth son, with his queen Istnofret, Ramesses II in Wikipedia Ramesses II (reigned 1279 BCE to 1213 BCE - also known as Ramesses the Great and alternatively transcribed as Ramses and Rameses *Riʕmīsisu; also known as Ozymandias in the Greek sources, from a transliteration into Greek of a part of Ramesses' throne name, User- maat-re Setep-en-re) was the third Egyptian pharaoh of the Nineteenth dynasty. He is often regarded as Egypt's greatest, most celebrated, and most powerful pharaoh. His successors and later Egyptians called him the "Great Ancestor". At age fourteen, Ramesses was appointed Prince Regent by his father Seti I. He is believed to have taken the throne in his early 20s and is known to have ruled Egypt from 1279 BC to 1213 BC for a total of 66 years and 2 months, according to both Manetho and Egypt's contemporary historical records. He was once said to have lived to be 99 years old, but it is more likely that he died in his 90th or 91st year. If he became Pharaoh in 1279 BC as most Egyptologists today believe, he would have assumed the throne on May 31, 1279 BC, based on his known accession date of III Shemu day 27. Ramesses II celebrated an unprecedented 14 sed festivals during his reign- more than any other pharaoh. On his death, he was buried in a tomb in the Valley of the Kings; his body was later moved to a royal cache where it was discovered in 1881, and is now on display in the Cairo Museum. Ramesses II led several expeditions north into the lands east of the Mediterranean (the location of the modern Israel, Lebanon and Syria). He also led expeditions to the south, into Nubia, commemorated in inscriptions at Beit el-Wali and Gerf Hussein. The early part of his reign was focused on building cities, temples and monuments. He established the city of Pi-Ramesses in the Nile Delta as his new capital and main base for his campaigns in Syria. This city was built on the remains of the city of Avaris, the capital of the Hyksos when they took over, and was the location of the main Temple of Set. Campaigns and battles Early in his life, Ramesses II embarked on numerous campaigns to return previously held territories back from Nubian and Hittite hands and to secure Egypt's borders. He was also responsible for suppressing some Nubian revolts and carrying out a campaign in Libya. Although the famous Battle of Kadesh often dominates the scholarly view of Ramesses II's military prowess and power, he nevertheless enjoyed more than a few outright victories over the enemies of Egypt. During Ramesses II's reign, the Egyptian army is estimated to have totaled about 100,000 men; a formidable force that he used to strengthen Egyptian influence. Battle against Sherden sea pirates In his second year, Ramesses II decisively defeated the Shardana or Sherden sea pirates who were wreaking havoc along Egypt's Mediterranean coast by attacking cargo-laden vessels travelling the sea routes to Egypt. The Sherden people probably came from the coast of Ionia or possibly south-west Turkey. Ramesses posted troops and ships at strategic points along the coast and patiently allowed the pirates to attack their prey before skillfully catching them by surprise in a sea battle and capturing them all in a single action. A stele from Tanis speaks of their having come "in their war-ships from the midst of the sea, and none were able to stand before them". There must have been a naval battle somewhere near the mouth of the Nile, as shortly afterwards many Sherden are seen in the Pharaoh's body-guard where they are conspicuous by their horned helmets with a ball projecting from the middle, their round shields and the great Naue II swords with which they are depicted in inscriptions of the Battle of Kadesh. In that sea battle, together with the Shardana, the pharaoh also defeated the Lukka (L'kkw, possibly the later Lycians), and the Šqrsšw (Shekelesh) peoples. First Syrian campaign The immediate antecedents to the Battle of Kadesh were the early campaigns of Ramesses II into Canaan and Palestine. His first campaign seems to have taken place in the fourth year of his reign and was commemorated by the erection of a stele near modern Beirut. The inscription is almost totally illegible due to weathering. His records tell us that he was forced to fight a Palestinian prince who was mortally wounded by an Egyptian archer, and whose army was subsequently routed. Ramesses carried off the princes of Palestine as live prisoners to Egypt. Ramesses then plundered the chiefs of the Asiatics in their own lands, returning every year to his headquarters at Riblah to exact tribute. In the fourth year of his reign, he captured the Hittite vassal state of Amurru during his campaign in Second Syrian campaign The Battle of Kadesh in his fifth regnal year was the climactic engagement in a campaign that Ramesses fought in Syria, against the resurgent Hittite forces of Muwatallis. The pharaoh wanted a victory at Kadesh both to expand Egypt's frontiers into Syria and to emulate his father Seti I's triumphal entry into the city just a decade or so earlier. He also constructed his new capital, Pi-Ramesses where he built factories to manufacture weapons, chariots, and shields. Of course, they followed his wishes and manufactured some 1,000 weapons in a week, about 250 chariots in 2 weeks, and 1,000 shields in a week and a half. After these preparations, Ramesses moved to attack territory in the Levant which belonged to a more substantial enemy than any he had ever faced before: the Hittite Empire. Although Ramesses's forces were caught in a Hittite ambush and outnumbered at Kadesh, the pharaoh fought the battle to a stalemate and returned home a hero. Ramesses II's forces suffered major losses particularly among the 'Ra' division which was routed by the initial charge of the Hittite chariots during the battle. Once back in Egypt, Ramesses proclaimed that he had won a great victory. He had amazed everybody by almost winning a lost battle. The Battle of Kadesh was a personal triumph for Ramesses, as after blundering into a devastating Hittite ambush, the young king courageously rallied his scattered troops to fight on the battlefield while escaping death or capture. Still, many historians regard the battle as a strategic defeat for the Egyptians as they were unable to occupy the city or territory around Kadesh. Ramesses decorated his monuments with reliefs and inscriptions describing the campaign as a whole, and the battle in particular as a major victory. Inscriptions of his victory decorate the Ramesseum, Abydos, Karnak, Luxor and Abu Simbel. For example, on the temple walls of Luxor the near catastrophe was turned into an act of heroism: His majesty slaughtered the armed forces of the Hittites in their entirety, their great rulers and all their brothers ... their infantry and chariot troops fell prostrate, one on top of the other. His majesty killed them ... and they lay stretched out in front of their horses. But his majesty was alone, nobody accompanied him ...	<urn:uuid:56d9278f-e21f-4c68-ac48-6b6c4e82b011>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bible-history.com/links.php?cat=46&sub=3441&cat_name=People+-+Ancient+Egypt&subcat_name=Ramesses+II+%28Usermaatresetepenre%29+	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00471.warc.gz	en	0.980439	2,302	3.53125	4	[ -0.11723843216896057, 1.026782751083374, 0.3469318747520447, -0.01135091483592987, -0.5286824107170105, -0.41217729449272156, -0.0767863392829895, -0.19257330894470215, 0.1091248095035553, 0.03139512613415718, -0.19046765565872192, -0.689271092414856, 0.5373901128768921, 0.000248780008405447, 0.05056101828813553, 0.11026810109615326, -0.4883379340171814, 0.2805994153022766, -0.6931646466255188, 0.32123273611068726, 0.543052077293396, -0.4132489562034607, 0.20539622008800507, -0.025077644735574722, 0.1083591878414154, 0.31005769968032837, -0.5753798484802246, 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Towards the end of the 19th Dynasty the increasing power of the priesthood corrupts the central government. During the 20th Dynasty tomb robbing is done by officials. The priesthood becomes hereditary and begins to assume secular power. The government breaks down. Ramesses II (Usermaatresetepenre) The son of Seti I and Queen Tuya was the third king of the 19th Dynasty. Called Ramesses the Great, he lived to be 96 years old, had 200 wives and concubines, 96 sons and 60 daughters. One son, Prince Khaemwese, was a high priest of Ptah, governor of Memphis, and was in charge of the restoration of the Pyramid of Unas. This son was buried in The Serapeum. Ramesses II outlived the first thirteen of his heirs. Ramesses was named co-ruler with his father, Seti I, early in his life. He accompanied his father on numerous campaigns in Libya and Nubia. At the age of 22 Ramesses went on a campaign in Nubia with two of his own sons. Seti I and Ramesses built a palace in Avaris where Ramesses I had started a new capital. When Seti I died in 1290 B.C., Ramesses assumed the throne and began a series of wars against the Syrians. The famous Battle of Kadesh is inscribed on the walls of Ramesses temple. Ramesses' building accomplishments are two temples at Abu Simbel, the hypostyle hall at Karnak, a mortuary complex at Abydos, the Colossus of Ramesses at Memphis, a vast tomb at Thebes, additions at the Luxor Temple, and the famous Ramesseum. Among Ramesses' wives were Nefertari, Queen Istnofret, his two daughters, Binthanath and Merytamon, and the Hittite princess, Maathornefrure. Ramesses was originally buried in his tomb in the Valley of the Kings. Because of the widespread looting of tombs during the 21st Dynasty the priests removed Ramesses body and took it to a holding area where the valuable materials such, as gold-leaf and semi- precious inlays, were removed. The body was then rewrapped and taken to the tomb of an 18th Dynasty queen, Inhapi. The bodies of Ramesses I and Seti I were done in like fashion and all ended up at the same place. Amenhotep I's body had been placed there as well at an earlier time. Seventy-two hours later, all of the bodies were again moved, this time to the Royal Cache that was inside the tomb of High Priest Pinudjem II. The priests documented all of this on the linen that covered the bodies. This "systematic" looting by the priests was done in the guise of protecting the bodies from the "common" thieves. Ramesses was followed to the throne by his thirteenth son, with his queen Istnofret, Ramesses II in Wikipedia Ramesses II (reigned 1279 BCE to 1213 BCE - also known as Ramesses the Great and alternatively transcribed as Ramses and Rameses *Riʕmīsisu; also known as Ozymandias in the Greek sources, from a transliteration into Greek of a part of Ramesses' throne name, User- maat-re Setep-en-re) was the third Egyptian pharaoh of the Nineteenth dynasty. He is often regarded as Egypt's greatest, most celebrated, and most powerful pharaoh. His successors and later Egyptians called him the "Great Ancestor". At age fourteen, Ramesses was appointed Prince Regent by his father Seti I. He is believed to have taken the throne in his early 20s and is known to have ruled Egypt from 1279 BC to 1213 BC for a total of 66 years and 2 months, according to both Manetho and Egypt's contemporary historical records. He was once said to have lived to be 99 years old, but it is more likely that he died in his 90th or 91st year. If he became Pharaoh in 1279 BC as most Egyptologists today believe, he would have assumed the throne on May 31, 1279 BC, based on his known accession date of III Shemu day 27. Ramesses II celebrated an unprecedented 14 sed festivals during his reign- more than any other pharaoh. On his death, he was buried in a tomb in the Valley of the Kings; his body was later moved to a royal cache where it was discovered in 1881, and is now on display in the Cairo Museum. Ramesses II led several expeditions north into the lands east of the Mediterranean (the location of the modern Israel, Lebanon and Syria). He also led expeditions to the south, into Nubia, commemorated in inscriptions at Beit el-Wali and Gerf Hussein. The early part of his reign was focused on building cities, temples and monuments. He established the city of Pi-Ramesses in the Nile Delta as his new capital and main base for his campaigns in Syria. This city was built on the remains of the city of Avaris, the capital of the Hyksos when they took over, and was the location of the main Temple of Set. Campaigns and battles Early in his life, Ramesses II embarked on numerous campaigns to return previously held territories back from Nubian and Hittite hands and to secure Egypt's borders. He was also responsible for suppressing some Nubian revolts and carrying out a campaign in Libya. Although the famous Battle of Kadesh often dominates the scholarly view of Ramesses II's military prowess and power, he nevertheless enjoyed more than a few outright victories over the enemies of Egypt. During Ramesses II's reign, the Egyptian army is estimated to have totaled about 100,000 men; a formidable force that he used to strengthen Egyptian influence. Battle against Sherden sea pirates In his second year, Ramesses II decisively defeated the Shardana or Sherden sea pirates who were wreaking havoc along Egypt's Mediterranean coast by attacking cargo-laden vessels travelling the sea routes to Egypt. The Sherden people probably came from the coast of Ionia or possibly south-west Turkey. Ramesses posted troops and ships at strategic points along the coast and patiently allowed the pirates to attack their prey before skillfully catching them by surprise in a sea battle and capturing them all in a single action. A stele from Tanis speaks of their having come "in their war-ships from the midst of the sea, and none were able to stand before them". There must have been a naval battle somewhere near the mouth of the Nile, as shortly afterwards many Sherden are seen in the Pharaoh's body-guard where they are conspicuous by their horned helmets with a ball projecting from the middle, their round shields and the great Naue II swords with which they are depicted in inscriptions of the Battle of Kadesh. In that sea battle, together with the Shardana, the pharaoh also defeated the Lukka (L'kkw, possibly the later Lycians), and the Šqrsšw (Shekelesh) peoples. First Syrian campaign The immediate antecedents to the Battle of Kadesh were the early campaigns of Ramesses II into Canaan and Palestine. His first campaign seems to have taken place in the fourth year of his reign and was commemorated by the erection of a stele near modern Beirut. The inscription is almost totally illegible due to weathering. His records tell us that he was forced to fight a Palestinian prince who was mortally wounded by an Egyptian archer, and whose army was subsequently routed. Ramesses carried off the princes of Palestine as live prisoners to Egypt. Ramesses then plundered the chiefs of the Asiatics in their own lands, returning every year to his headquarters at Riblah to exact tribute. In the fourth year of his reign, he captured the Hittite vassal state of Amurru during his campaign in Second Syrian campaign The Battle of Kadesh in his fifth regnal year was the climactic engagement in a campaign that Ramesses fought in Syria, against the resurgent Hittite forces of Muwatallis. The pharaoh wanted a victory at Kadesh both to expand Egypt's frontiers into Syria and to emulate his father Seti I's triumphal entry into the city just a decade or so earlier. He also constructed his new capital, Pi-Ramesses where he built factories to manufacture weapons, chariots, and shields. Of course, they followed his wishes and manufactured some 1,000 weapons in a week, about 250 chariots in 2 weeks, and 1,000 shields in a week and a half. After these preparations, Ramesses moved to attack territory in the Levant which belonged to a more substantial enemy than any he had ever faced before: the Hittite Empire. Although Ramesses's forces were caught in a Hittite ambush and outnumbered at Kadesh, the pharaoh fought the battle to a stalemate and returned home a hero. Ramesses II's forces suffered major losses particularly among the 'Ra' division which was routed by the initial charge of the Hittite chariots during the battle. Once back in Egypt, Ramesses proclaimed that he had won a great victory. He had amazed everybody by almost winning a lost battle. The Battle of Kadesh was a personal triumph for Ramesses, as after blundering into a devastating Hittite ambush, the young king courageously rallied his scattered troops to fight on the battlefield while escaping death or capture. Still, many historians regard the battle as a strategic defeat for the Egyptians as they were unable to occupy the city or territory around Kadesh. Ramesses decorated his monuments with reliefs and inscriptions describing the campaign as a whole, and the battle in particular as a major victory. Inscriptions of his victory decorate the Ramesseum, Abydos, Karnak, Luxor and Abu Simbel. For example, on the temple walls of Luxor the near catastrophe was turned into an act of heroism: His majesty slaughtered the armed forces of the Hittites in their entirety, their great rulers and all their brothers ... their infantry and chariot troops fell prostrate, one on top of the other. His majesty killed them ... and they lay stretched out in front of their horses. But his majesty was alone, nobody accompanied him ...	2,350	ENGLISH	1
Scribe and Maat. (21, 5x8x15cm.) Reproduction made of resin marble (marble dust + resin). Completion with old patina. Goddess Maat. Egypt. Low time. Between 1085 and 332 b.c. Original copper metal. Museum of the Louvre.Paris. Maat was the Egyptian goddess of righteousness, truth and justice. His symbol was a blue ostrich feather.This pen that adorns his head was serving as a counterweight on one of the dishes of the balance that was used during the "trial of the dead', which carried the Court presided over by the God Osiris. On the other side is placed the heart of the deceased, which represented their actions in life. If the heart was as light as a feather, then that was tried was prepared to overcome the evidence that would lead to the Amenti (land of Amun). If the heart weighed more than the pen would have to return to the land and continue the cycle of incarnations until his actions were pure and free from all unrighteousness. The goddess Maat personified the order, a fundamental idea in the Egyptian world view. And in this sense it represented one of the main responsibilities of the Egyptian monarch: the restoration and maintenance of order and security originating in the cosmos; thus often it represents the goddess in scenes in which the King presents a statuette of Maat as a symbolic offering to the gods. On the other hand, it was closely related to the ideas of truth and justice, so that judges in the performance of their duties was seen as priests of Maat. The Egyptian scribes were those who knew the science of writing in ancient societies, were of great importance and occupied senior positions in the social scale. They were high-ranking officials from the Middle Kingdom. In the new Kingdom, the title of Royal scribe was taken even by princes. During low there was the title of «the divine book scribe» or iron-Grammata, occupied a high position in the clergy. 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(21, 5x8x15cm.) Reproduction made of resin marble (marble dust + resin). Completion with old patina. Goddess Maat. Egypt. Low time. Between 1085 and 332 b.c. Original copper metal. Museum of the Louvre.Paris. Maat was the Egyptian goddess of righteousness, truth and justice. His symbol was a blue ostrich feather.This pen that adorns his head was serving as a counterweight on one of the dishes of the balance that was used during the "trial of the dead', which carried the Court presided over by the God Osiris. On the other side is placed the heart of the deceased, which represented their actions in life. If the heart was as light as a feather, then that was tried was prepared to overcome the evidence that would lead to the Amenti (land of Amun). If the heart weighed more than the pen would have to return to the land and continue the cycle of incarnations until his actions were pure and free from all unrighteousness. The goddess Maat personified the order, a fundamental idea in the Egyptian world view. And in this sense it represented one of the main responsibilities of the Egyptian monarch: the restoration and maintenance of order and security originating in the cosmos; thus often it represents the goddess in scenes in which the King presents a statuette of Maat as a symbolic offering to the gods. On the other hand, it was closely related to the ideas of truth and justice, so that judges in the performance of their duties was seen as priests of Maat. The Egyptian scribes were those who knew the science of writing in ancient societies, were of great importance and occupied senior positions in the social scale. They were high-ranking officials from the Middle Kingdom. In the new Kingdom, the title of Royal scribe was taken even by princes. During low there was the title of «the divine book scribe» or iron-Grammata, occupied a high position in the clergy. The Egyptian priests had a great preparation cultural, as temples were centers of transmission of culture.	442	ENGLISH	1
Bellringer • What are three major changes that occurred because of the Industrial Revolution? World History Fulton/Westerfield Chapter 13 Industrial Revolution Section 2 Notes The Factory System: How Machines Affected Work • Steam powered machinery made work easier and a person could learn a task or operate a machine in a few days. • Employers began to hire women, children, and young men because they could operate machines as efficiently as men and did not expect high wages and were unskilled. The Factory System: The Wage System • Unlike the domestic system ( meaning at home), each worker worked on only a small part of the job of making a product and under the watchful eye of supervisors. • Workers were paid based on the number of hours worked or the amount of goods produced. The Wage System • Several factors determined a worker’s wage. • Wages set in relation to other costs of production • Number of workers available—surplus of workers brought wages down and a shortage of workers caused wages to rise • Wages depended on what people could expect to earn at other kinds of work • Wages were higher for men than women; women often were thought of as working to add a little income to their families when in reality many were the only wage earners in their families The Lives of Factory Workers • Workers had many rules to follow. They had to be at work on time, could eat or take breaks only at certain times, could leave only with permission, and worked in in hot and cold conditions, day or night. • Breaking rules could result in fines, pay cuts, or job loss. • Factories were cold and damp places with poor sanitation. Accidents occurred frequently and no compensation was paid. Workers worked up to 14 hours a day six days a week. The Lives of Factory Workers • There many abuses that took place in factories. Parliament passed the Factory Act of 1833 in response to news of horrific working conditions children had been forced to endure. • Workers lived in shabby apartment buildings called tenements. As many as a dozen people lived in a single room. • Over time conditions did improve slightly as consumer goods became cheaper and more available to workers. Wages did increase somewhat but the lower classes continued to suffer. Development of the Middle Class • During the Industrial Revolution, the economic and political power shifted from agriculture to manufacturing. • A well-educated middle class grew and developed as the cities and industry grew. • This group of people consisted of bankers, manufacturers, merchants, lawyers, doctors, engineers, professors, and their families. • Many also served in management or other types of administrative jobs that ran industries. Development of the Middle Class • Over time the middle class gained increasing social influence and political power. • To many the middle class represented a social stepladder. Each generation had hoped that the next one would rise up the social ladder than the one before it. • As the middle class expanded, many families were able to move up the economic ladder. Development of the Middle Class • As the middle class saw their finances improve, their lifestyles began to reflect their rising social status. • Many middle class families could afford larger homes and could own property. Their children attended good schools and prepared for higher-level jobs. • The middle class influence caused government leaders to be concerned about the future of industry as well as agriculture. Effect of Industrialization on Women’s Lives • The need for farm labor decreased due to improved farming methods and equipment which caused many women to take jobs in textile mills or factories. • Many young women continued to work at traditional women’s jobs—domestic service. • Because many middle class families had enough money that women did not have to work outside the home. They could stay home and take care of the house work. Effect of Industrialization on Women’s Lives • For some women, a life outside of the home would have meant independence. • Near the end of the 19th century, certain jobs such as nurses, secretaries, and telephone operators opened up to women. • Higher education opened up to women and with more public schools many women became teachers. Most elementary school teachers were women by the late 1800s.	<urn:uuid:1caa2293-a809-419f-9043-6dc4ff0c913b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.slideserve.com/audi/bellringer	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00559.warc.gz	en	0.981526	852	4.0625	4	[ -0.3887653648853302, -0.01098207663744688, 0.1816066950559616, 0.40777668356895447, 0.007723856717348099, 0.13359899818897247, 0.23825182020664215, 0.12153685092926025, -0.48792245984077454, -0.16137224435806274, 0.2307903915643692, 0.12543712556362152, -0.17049956321716309, -0.13595686852931976, -0.1108771339058876, -0.03888072445988655, -0.6121258735656738, 0.18344783782958984, -1.01199471950531, -0.0567689910531044, 0.311315655708313, -0.5694915652275085, -0.09134596586227417, 0.23536452651023865, 0.08914080262184143, 0.08896083384752274, -0.04915973171591759, 0.15750814974308014, -0.3908696174621582, -1.4240524768829346, 0.14695501327514648, -0.04909294471144676, 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-0.5190243721008301, -0.08314286172389984, 0.6981451511383057, 0.2988571226596832, -0.4081379175186157, -0.9137458801269531, 0.5657640695571899, 0.0578935369849205, -0.27129700779914856, 0.3064711093902588, 0.19375574588775635, 0.7624727487564087, 0.15411213040351868, 0.09361283481121063, -0.6312911510467529, -0.005429075099527836, 0.14131075143814087, -0.01996360346674919, -0.11443567276000977, 0.1386917680501938, -0.3567000925540924, -0.006766533944755793, 0.06427047401666641 ]	1	Bellringer • What are three major changes that occurred because of the Industrial Revolution? World History Fulton/Westerfield Chapter 13 Industrial Revolution Section 2 Notes The Factory System: How Machines Affected Work • Steam powered machinery made work easier and a person could learn a task or operate a machine in a few days. • Employers began to hire women, children, and young men because they could operate machines as efficiently as men and did not expect high wages and were unskilled. The Factory System: The Wage System • Unlike the domestic system ( meaning at home), each worker worked on only a small part of the job of making a product and under the watchful eye of supervisors. • Workers were paid based on the number of hours worked or the amount of goods produced. The Wage System • Several factors determined a worker’s wage. • Wages set in relation to other costs of production • Number of workers available—surplus of workers brought wages down and a shortage of workers caused wages to rise • Wages depended on what people could expect to earn at other kinds of work • Wages were higher for men than women; women often were thought of as working to add a little income to their families when in reality many were the only wage earners in their families The Lives of Factory Workers • Workers had many rules to follow. They had to be at work on time, could eat or take breaks only at certain times, could leave only with permission, and worked in in hot and cold conditions, day or night. • Breaking rules could result in fines, pay cuts, or job loss. • Factories were cold and damp places with poor sanitation. Accidents occurred frequently and no compensation was paid. Workers worked up to 14 hours a day six days a week. The Lives of Factory Workers • There many abuses that took place in factories. Parliament passed the Factory Act of 1833 in response to news of horrific working conditions children had been forced to endure. • Workers lived in shabby apartment buildings called tenements. As many as a dozen people lived in a single room. • Over time conditions did improve slightly as consumer goods became cheaper and more available to workers. Wages did increase somewhat but the lower classes continued to suffer. Development of the Middle Class • During the Industrial Revolution, the economic and political power shifted from agriculture to manufacturing. • A well-educated middle class grew and developed as the cities and industry grew. • This group of people consisted of bankers, manufacturers, merchants, lawyers, doctors, engineers, professors, and their families. • Many also served in management or other types of administrative jobs that ran industries. Development of the Middle Class • Over time the middle class gained increasing social influence and political power. • To many the middle class represented a social stepladder. Each generation had hoped that the next one would rise up the social ladder than the one before it. • As the middle class expanded, many families were able to move up the economic ladder. Development of the Middle Class • As the middle class saw their finances improve, their lifestyles began to reflect their rising social status. • Many middle class families could afford larger homes and could own property. Their children attended good schools and prepared for higher-level jobs. • The middle class influence caused government leaders to be concerned about the future of industry as well as agriculture. Effect of Industrialization on Women’s Lives • The need for farm labor decreased due to improved farming methods and equipment which caused many women to take jobs in textile mills or factories. • Many young women continued to work at traditional women’s jobs—domestic service. • Because many middle class families had enough money that women did not have to work outside the home. They could stay home and take care of the house work. Effect of Industrialization on Women’s Lives • For some women, a life outside of the home would have meant independence. • Near the end of the 19th century, certain jobs such as nurses, secretaries, and telephone operators opened up to women. • Higher education opened up to women and with more public schools many women became teachers. Most elementary school teachers were women by the late 1800s.	848	ENGLISH	1
Simply put: Because Switzerland did not have that much strategic value for Germany, and because it is incredibly difficult to invade. In addition, Nazi Germany had a financial motive to leave Switzerland alone: they sold a lot of gold to Switzerland. On a map of Europe it is seen that Switzerland is enclosed between Germany, Austria, Italy and France. Italy was already an ally of Germany and Austria was made in March 1938 part of Germany. Therefore, control over Switzerland to conquer these two areas was not necessary. Switzerland is also surrounded by high mountains, and in three days time managed to mobilize about 850,000 soldiers when the war broke out in 1939.This, combined with a clever defensive tactic, makes that an attack on Switzerland would cost a lot of effort. The Swiss had thought that, should the country be attacked, the army would keep itself in well defended and favoured forts in the mountains. In this way, it would be very difficult to get them out of the mountains with violence, so it would be an attacker to take a lot of time, manpower and equipment to conquer Switzerland. In order to attack France, control over Switzerland was not really necessary: there was already one (as history proves) an excellent plan to attack France via the Netherlands and Belgium.From Belgium It is also much less far to Paris than from Switzerland. The Nazis described Switzerland after the victory in France as “a pimst in the middle of Europe”, a state that has no right to exist, and populated by “the most vile and miserable people, the primeal enemies of the new Germany”.Himmler’s plan was to purify Switzerland racially. As of June 1940, plans were made to invade together with Italy in Operation Tannenbaum-Wikipedia.About 11 German divies and 15 Italian divisions with 300 -500 000 were reserved for the raid. Eventually, Hitler never put the plans into execution. Politically, there was not much to take advantage of in the conquest of Switzerland. The raid the following year in Russia was more important. It was knarsetandend.Hitler hated the Swiss and Switzerland. It never became clear why he did that. During the Blitzkrieg in the west there was a plan Tannenbaum (Denneboom), which was the invasion and occupation of Switzerland: from France, once that country was fully occupied, a two-pronged attack on the Swiss would take place-one From France and the other from Germany. Given the geography, the fact that the Swiss Nijver had collaborated with the Germans (VNL on the persecution of the Jews in the late 30s-the fact that Jews had to have a large “J” in their passports was a Swiss idea), but mainly because the Nazis Had found that the Swiss were willing to cooperate and had a potproof bank secret, the Swiss were left alone.They became the bankers of Nazi Germany: Untold amounts of gold, money, securities and also art was stored in Switzerland. Switzerland, although Hitler hated it, proved to be more useful as a lucky and banker, than as an enemy.The Tannenbaum plan disappeared in the refrigerator to never get out of it. 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0.18781721591949463, 0.05014203116297722, -0.0391264334321022, -0.450006902217865, 0.08028420805931091, 0.9205121994018555, -0.000433117151260376, 0.9890655279159546, -0.20471394062042236, 0.15565750002861023, -0.3710474967956543, -0.12309052050113678, -0.05662119388580322, -0.21531695127487183, 0.01245039701461792, -0.06425796449184418, -0.21825383603572845, -0.05304163321852684, -0.1096879243850708, -0.19178283214569092, -0.18792828917503357, 0.06301359087228775, 0.4693962335586548, -0.007625561207532883, 0.246731698513031, -0.20422953367233276, 0.09946755319833755, 0.14114296436309814 ]	8	Simply put: Because Switzerland did not have that much strategic value for Germany, and because it is incredibly difficult to invade. In addition, Nazi Germany had a financial motive to leave Switzerland alone: they sold a lot of gold to Switzerland. On a map of Europe it is seen that Switzerland is enclosed between Germany, Austria, Italy and France. Italy was already an ally of Germany and Austria was made in March 1938 part of Germany. Therefore, control over Switzerland to conquer these two areas was not necessary. Switzerland is also surrounded by high mountains, and in three days time managed to mobilize about 850,000 soldiers when the war broke out in 1939.This, combined with a clever defensive tactic, makes that an attack on Switzerland would cost a lot of effort. The Swiss had thought that, should the country be attacked, the army would keep itself in well defended and favoured forts in the mountains. In this way, it would be very difficult to get them out of the mountains with violence, so it would be an attacker to take a lot of time, manpower and equipment to conquer Switzerland. In order to attack France, control over Switzerland was not really necessary: there was already one (as history proves) an excellent plan to attack France via the Netherlands and Belgium.From Belgium It is also much less far to Paris than from Switzerland. The Nazis described Switzerland after the victory in France as “a pimst in the middle of Europe”, a state that has no right to exist, and populated by “the most vile and miserable people, the primeal enemies of the new Germany”.Himmler’s plan was to purify Switzerland racially. As of June 1940, plans were made to invade together with Italy in Operation Tannenbaum-Wikipedia.About 11 German divies and 15 Italian divisions with 300 -500 000 were reserved for the raid. Eventually, Hitler never put the plans into execution. Politically, there was not much to take advantage of in the conquest of Switzerland. The raid the following year in Russia was more important. It was knarsetandend.Hitler hated the Swiss and Switzerland. It never became clear why he did that. During the Blitzkrieg in the west there was a plan Tannenbaum (Denneboom), which was the invasion and occupation of Switzerland: from France, once that country was fully occupied, a two-pronged attack on the Swiss would take place-one From France and the other from Germany. Given the geography, the fact that the Swiss Nijver had collaborated with the Germans (VNL on the persecution of the Jews in the late 30s-the fact that Jews had to have a large “J” in their passports was a Swiss idea), but mainly because the Nazis Had found that the Swiss were willing to cooperate and had a potproof bank secret, the Swiss were left alone.They became the bankers of Nazi Germany: Untold amounts of gold, money, securities and also art was stored in Switzerland. Switzerland, although Hitler hated it, proved to be more useful as a lucky and banker, than as an enemy.The Tannenbaum plan disappeared in the refrigerator to never get out of it. Anyway they had to park their money somewhere for when it went wrong?	682	ENGLISH	1
(Last Updated on : 23-04-2018) Buddhas Great Enlightenment was achieved at the age of 35 after a prolonged meditation under the Pipal tree at Bodh Gaya . The story of the Buddhas enlightenment is not told exactly the same way in all Schools of Buddhism . Some traditions believe that this enlightenment occurred in the 5th lunar month, while some others believe that this took place in the 12th lunar month. From then onwards Gautama was known as Buddha, which means Awakened One or the Enlightened One. Often, he was referred to as Sakyamuni Buddha, which means The Awakened one of Sakya Clan Achievement of Buddhas Great Enlightenment Prince Siddhartha Gautama was confronted with the reality of human suffering. He at the age of 29 is said to have left the family palace to meet his subjects. Then, with five companions, he engaged in rigorous asceticism for 5 to 6 years. He tortured himself and fasted until his ribs stuck out, but yet enlightenment was not achieved. He realized then that instead of punishing his body, he would work with his own nature and practice purity of mental defilements to realize enlightenment. He knew that he would need physical strength and better health to continue. About this time, a young girl named Sujata came by and offered Siddhartha a bowl of milk . When his companions saw him eating solid food they believed he had given up the quest, and they abandoned him. At this point, Siddhartha had realized the path to awakening was a middle way . The middle way is the path of moderation, away from the extreme of self-indulgence and self-mortification. Then Buddha sat under the Pipal tree, which is now known as the Bodhi tree situated in Bodh Gaya and he vowed not to arise from his seat until he had found the truth of life. Buddha went for a meditation of 49 days and then attained enlightenment at the age of 35 years. On attaining enlightenment, Buddha realized that complete awakening and insight depends on the nature. Cause of human suffering was ignorance, which needed to be eliminated. The state of supreme liberation that was possible for any being was termed as Nirvana . Eventually, he formulated the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path , so that people could find the way to enlightenment for himself. 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-0.001329683349467814, 0.23780497908592224, 1.0653648376464844, -0.13999539613723755, -0.2711711525917053, -0.14479292929172516, 0.2594756782054901, 0.009305162355303764, 0.06559362262487411, 0.3248581290245056, 0.01364202331751585, 0.7741900682449341, -0.03935769572854042, 0.23015964031219482, -0.24990057945251465, -0.5521290302276611, -0.03143852949142456, -0.681105375289917, -0.23074518144130707, 0.21979264914989471, 0.10736733675003052, 0.15205487608909607, 0.33535557985305786 ]	2	(Last Updated on : 23-04-2018) Buddhas Great Enlightenment was achieved at the age of 35 after a prolonged meditation under the Pipal tree at Bodh Gaya . The story of the Buddhas enlightenment is not told exactly the same way in all Schools of Buddhism . Some traditions believe that this enlightenment occurred in the 5th lunar month, while some others believe that this took place in the 12th lunar month. From then onwards Gautama was known as Buddha, which means Awakened One or the Enlightened One. Often, he was referred to as Sakyamuni Buddha, which means The Awakened one of Sakya Clan Achievement of Buddhas Great Enlightenment Prince Siddhartha Gautama was confronted with the reality of human suffering. He at the age of 29 is said to have left the family palace to meet his subjects. Then, with five companions, he engaged in rigorous asceticism for 5 to 6 years. He tortured himself and fasted until his ribs stuck out, but yet enlightenment was not achieved. He realized then that instead of punishing his body, he would work with his own nature and practice purity of mental defilements to realize enlightenment. He knew that he would need physical strength and better health to continue. About this time, a young girl named Sujata came by and offered Siddhartha a bowl of milk . When his companions saw him eating solid food they believed he had given up the quest, and they abandoned him. At this point, Siddhartha had realized the path to awakening was a middle way . The middle way is the path of moderation, away from the extreme of self-indulgence and self-mortification. Then Buddha sat under the Pipal tree, which is now known as the Bodhi tree situated in Bodh Gaya and he vowed not to arise from his seat until he had found the truth of life. Buddha went for a meditation of 49 days and then attained enlightenment at the age of 35 years. On attaining enlightenment, Buddha realized that complete awakening and insight depends on the nature. Cause of human suffering was ignorance, which needed to be eliminated. The state of supreme liberation that was possible for any being was termed as Nirvana . Eventually, he formulated the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path , so that people could find the way to enlightenment for himself. Then he left Bodh Gaya and went forth to teach.	523	ENGLISH	1
South Carolina politician John C. Calhoun and General Joseph Hooker played critical roles in 19th-century America. In addition, both are Deerfield community members’ distant uncles. Science teacher Rich Calhoun and Serena Ainslie ’16 reflected on their ancestors’ work. Born in 1782, John Caldwell Calhoun long served as a South Carolina senator. Over the course of his career, he became increasingly preoccupied with states’ rights and maintaining slavery. Calhoun served as vice president from 1824 to 1832, under both James Monroe and Andrew Jackson. His extreme views and dissenting actions isolated him in the White House. Notably, in 1828, he composed the South Carolina Exposition and Protest, which asserted states’ rights to veto or nullify federal laws and paved the way for future secessionist arguments. Mr. Calhoun noted that John Calhoun’s work “shaped modern conservative thought.” Mr. Calhoun commented, “John C. defended slavery, even at the cost of breaking the U.S., which I strongly disagree with.” One trait did endure across generations, however. Mr. Calhoun added, “John C. was a great orator, and ranting is a family characteristic.” He then quipped, “As the Deerfield Young Republicans’ advisor, I am very proud of John C.’s work, but when I lead the Young Democrats, I am ashamed.” Joseph Hooker, born in 1814, fought during the Seminole and Mexican-American Wars after graduating from West Point. He is best known for serving as a major general during the Civil War. He commanded units under George McClellan, rallying the Army of the Potomac during the Battle of Williamsburg and Seven Days Battles. Simultaneously, however, he drank, gambled, and even popularized the term “hooker.” Ainslie elucidated, “Even though Hooker was a great soldier, he did have a ‘dark side.’ He was known for having prostitutes at his parties; and when he and his men would conquer southern towns, the southern belles would follow him and his men from one camp to another. Apparently, the term ‘hooker’ had already been created because prostitutes would hang out around ports, where fish were ‘hooked,’ but Hooker was the one who made the term popular.” In January 1863, President Lincoln promoted Hooker to Army of the Potomac Commander. Appreciated by his subordinates, the general developed medical aid systems, rations, and furlough lengths. He also established an amnesty policy for deserters. But after a stunning defeat at the Battle of Chancellorsville, Hooker resigned, then assisted in the Western theater and Atlanta campaigns. Ainslie remarked upon her great, great, great uncle’s career, “Hooker played a crucial role in American history because of his contributions to the Army of the Potomac. He improved the medical care and food supply. He didn’t just win battles, but he helped to improve the lives of soldiers who were fighting for a worthy cause. Hooker also led Lincoln’s funeral procession.”	<urn:uuid:e4d78e7a-298a-4252-9106-0164a68f2de1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://deerfieldscroll.com/2015/02/famous-ancestors/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00301.warc.gz	en	0.980125	688	3.734375	4	[ -0.49344602227211, 0.43175172805786133, 0.363400399684906, -0.3441687226295471, 0.18969038128852844, 0.10255147516727448, 0.2885752320289612, -0.34122511744499207, -0.5041018724441528, 0.03924631327390671, 0.18960607051849365, 0.39195898175239563, 0.10924002528190613, 0.42583152651786804, -0.10977480560541153, -0.09362486004829407, -0.2881673574447632, 0.9359545111656189, -0.3790665864944458, 0.6139435768127441, 0.06909801065921783, -0.1916092038154602, 0.10408731549978256, -0.05642171576619148, 0.5512644052505493, -0.10687683522701263, 0.39541131258010864, -0.062747061252594, -0.6641502380371094, -1.368287444114685, 0.05866739898920059, -0.059766985476017, 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Calhoun and General Joseph Hooker played critical roles in 19th-century America. In addition, both are Deerfield community members’ distant uncles. Science teacher Rich Calhoun and Serena Ainslie ’16 reflected on their ancestors’ work. Born in 1782, John Caldwell Calhoun long served as a South Carolina senator. Over the course of his career, he became increasingly preoccupied with states’ rights and maintaining slavery. Calhoun served as vice president from 1824 to 1832, under both James Monroe and Andrew Jackson. His extreme views and dissenting actions isolated him in the White House. Notably, in 1828, he composed the South Carolina Exposition and Protest, which asserted states’ rights to veto or nullify federal laws and paved the way for future secessionist arguments. Mr. Calhoun noted that John Calhoun’s work “shaped modern conservative thought.” Mr. Calhoun commented, “John C. defended slavery, even at the cost of breaking the U.S., which I strongly disagree with.” One trait did endure across generations, however. Mr. Calhoun added, “John C. was a great orator, and ranting is a family characteristic.” He then quipped, “As the Deerfield Young Republicans’ advisor, I am very proud of John C.’s work, but when I lead the Young Democrats, I am ashamed.” Joseph Hooker, born in 1814, fought during the Seminole and Mexican-American Wars after graduating from West Point. He is best known for serving as a major general during the Civil War. He commanded units under George McClellan, rallying the Army of the Potomac during the Battle of Williamsburg and Seven Days Battles. Simultaneously, however, he drank, gambled, and even popularized the term “hooker.” Ainslie elucidated, “Even though Hooker was a great soldier, he did have a ‘dark side.’ He was known for having prostitutes at his parties; and when he and his men would conquer southern towns, the southern belles would follow him and his men from one camp to another. Apparently, the term ‘hooker’ had already been created because prostitutes would hang out around ports, where fish were ‘hooked,’ but Hooker was the one who made the term popular.” In January 1863, President Lincoln promoted Hooker to Army of the Potomac Commander. Appreciated by his subordinates, the general developed medical aid systems, rations, and furlough lengths. He also established an amnesty policy for deserters. But after a stunning defeat at the Battle of Chancellorsville, Hooker resigned, then assisted in the Western theater and Atlanta campaigns. Ainslie remarked upon her great, great, great uncle’s career, “Hooker played a crucial role in American history because of his contributions to the Army of the Potomac. He improved the medical care and food supply. He didn’t just win battles, but he helped to improve the lives of soldiers who were fighting for a worthy cause. Hooker also led Lincoln’s funeral procession.”	665	ENGLISH	1
10 Reasons It Was Great To Be A Woman In History It wasn’t until the passage of the 19th amendment nearly 100 years ago that women could vote in America. Just two centuries ago, American women had few rights. If they earned money, their husbands got to spend it as they saw fit. Divorce was hard to obtain even for men who were abused. When women started protesting for the right to vote, they were met with violence as well as scorn. All of this would mean that we wouldn’t judge someone if they thought life in the ancient world was even worse for women. However, there have been times and situations in history when being a woman was advantageous. Below are ten upsides to being a woman throughout history. 10 Spartan Women Got to Stay Home While the Men Were Away Many of us know that Spartan women had more rights than women in other Greek city-states. They also led lives than their husbands may have been jealous of. The advantages of being female in Sparta started during childhood. Spartan girls got to compete in athletic competitions — naked — with the boys. Spartan women were allowed to exchange words with men along with blows. Spartan women were not allowed to hold jobs, but they could earn money through the property they owned, which was sometimes given by the government. All of these liberties were given to Spartan women so they would birth fine babies that would grow up to be skillful soldiers. While Spartan women were allowed to live relatively freely at home, all Spartan men who were citizens were subject to compulsory military service. Their lives were dangerous and their wives sometimes profited financially from their death. Spartan men’s lives were not only dangerous, but tough and during their time of military service, it could be argued that they had less freedom than Spartan women. 9Women Were Sometimes Put in Power Because of Their Gender In ancient Egypt, women were sometimes installed into power precisely the same reason women leaders are criticized for today: their gender. This was because women were seen as the safer option during times of turmoil. While most pharaohs were men, women were sometimes allowed to rule as regents for their younger male relatives. They were expected to protect the future pharaoh and rule wisely until they were old enough to make their own decisions. The first Epytian queen who took up the throne while waiting for her son to grow up was Queen Merneith of the first dynasty (ca. 3000-2890 B.C) after the death of her husband. Similarly, Queen Hatshesput ruled as regent for her nephew. Queens didn’t always take control while waiting for their sons to grow up, though. Queen Neferusobek assumed control after her husband’s death because her husband had no heir and Cleopata VII had her brothers killed to cement her control of the throne. 8 Greek Women Were Feared to be Too Clever Sexism is an interesting beast that morphs depending on the situation. It is important to note that the views of women depended on the individual, but Hesiod’s Theogony suggests that some Greek men feared women because of their cleverness. In the Theogony, it is women who instigate rebellion. It is Gaia who devises a plan to kill Ouranos, though her son Kronos does the actual killing. Rhea deceives her husband Kronos into swallowing a swaddled stone instead of Zeus, so that he is able to grow up and topple his father. Perhaps what mostly clearly expresses Hesiod’s sexism is his opinion of Pandora whom he writes that “Wonder held immortal gods and mortal men, / when they saw a sheer cunning, unmanageable for men./ For from her is the descent of female women / [for the race and tribes of women are destructive,] / a great pain for mortals, living with men, / companions not of destructive Poverty but of Plenty.” (Hesiod lines 588-593). This passage articulate Hesiod’s conception of women: women are to be kept in their place because they are dangerous. In Hesiod’s Theogony, women shouldn’t be denied rights because they are unintelligent, but because they are too clever. Pandora is the perfect punishment for humanity because she is a woman, who are described as “sheer cunning.”. Though women in ancient Greece suffered from the effects of sexism like women in other cultures, at least it sometimes was because they were seen as too capable instead of not capable enough. 7 Greek Male Lovers Were Killed Instead of Adulteresses Adulteresses in ancient Greece didn’t get off lightly unless their husband decided to keep their wife’s infidelity secret. They were divorced — a huge blow in a society where women were forced to depend on men, denied the right to attend religious functions, and were seen as so low that strangers were now encouraged to beat them. However, when compared to the punishment of their lovers, adulteresses could be seen as lucky. If a man in Athens found him wife coupling with a man, he could kill the man without being found guilty of murder. This law reflects the fact that such killings were seen as justified. Killing a man for raping a female relative was also justified. In Greek mythology, the god of war, Ares, killed Posiedon’s son, Halirrhothios, for raping his daughter. Posiedon complained and the gods put Ares on trial, ultimately finding him not guilty. In some versions of the myth, Ares kills Halirrhothios while he is attacking his daughter, while at other times he does it afterwards in revenge. Either way, it reflects an idea that men should protect their daughters from rape and that violence is an acceptable way to do so. While most traditional and modern societies are either patriarchal or egalitarian, some ancient societies were matriarchies. Some of these matriarchal societies still exist today. On the island of Kihnu, women are in charge because of a centuries-long tradition of men travelling from the island to find food or employment. Due to the fact that men were often not home, women were left in charge. Today, the island relies on government assistance and tourism to keep their traditional way of life intact. In China, the Mosou society is matrilineal because the father is often unknown. Tourists come to see the Mosou because their traditional way of life, stretching back thousands of years, is matriarchal with female heading the households. 5Pleading the Belly Pregnancy truly is miraculous, but in some situations, it is even more welcomed than others. If an English women found herself facing the death penalty, she could claim to be pregnant to push back the date of her pregnancy — provided she was tried between 1387 and 1931. Whether a woman was actually pregnant or not was less important than whether she claimed to be. Recognizing that most mothers knew more about pregnancy than most men, female criminals who claimed to be pregnant were required to appear before a court of matrons who would evaluate their claim. Whether the court of matrons decided that the woman was pregnant was a deciding factor in if the accused’s life was spared. However, women who claimed to be pregnant also had to be examined by the judge. 4 They Could Be the Wives of Gods One way women have been able to use to gain power for thousands of years is through marriage. Some women were more creative than others and rather than marrying a wealthy man, Enheduanna simply married a god. Enheduanna was the daughter of Sargon the Great, a famous poet, and the high priestess. Enheduanna’s claim of being beloved by the gods was in her name itself, which translates as “En-Priestess, wife of the god Nanna”. Enheduanna presided over Ur as the high priestess for four decades, though she was temporarily exiled. Men also claimed to have divine consorts. As the goddess of both war and love Inana was one of the most powerful deities in the Mesoptoamian pantheon and kings often claimed to be husband. Kings even legitimized their divine claim to the throne through a ceremony known as a sacred marriage where the wedding of Inana and Dumzi was reenacted by the high priestess of Inana and the king. Thus, women in ancient Mesopotamia could bolster their claim to power by claiming to be the consort of a male deity, while Mesopotamian kings legitimized their claims to the throne by claiming to be the lover of a female deity. 3 Women May Have Painted a Lot of Cave Art Women have left their mark on history in many ways, but some ways were more prominent and direct than others. One of the most direct ways women influenced history was through art. By examining the hand and finger ratios (which differ depending on gender) of Paleolithic cave art, scientists concluded that women may have painted up to 75% of cave art. Another scientist claimed that the art was actually painted by adolescent boys who liked to depict animals and nude women. However, it is interesting to think about women shaping the world — sometimes quite literally by painting their own hands onto cave walls. 2 Strong Women Women in the ancient world didn’t just sweep their houses, mind their children, and style their hair. Instead, they sometimes worked like men. Between 7,500 and 2,000 years ago, women in Europe have worked outside the home as well as inside of it. Sometimes, their work was physically demanding. Archaeologists at Cambridge University examined the bones of European women to determine what kind of tasks they performed. Most of the women’s bones indicated that they had arms that would make elite rowers today envious. These findings suggest that women in early Europe farmed alongside men. However, the manual labor of women in early Europe may have been overlooked because of sexism of modern day scientists. Men tend to build muscle more easily than women and by overlooking this fact, scientists may have underestimated the amount of physical labor women in ancient societies performed. 1 Scythian Women Fought Like Men While some cultures throughout history were matriarchal, others were egalitarian. The Scythians, who may have inspired the Greek myths of the Amazons, was one such egalitarian society. Scythian society revolved around horses, which may explain why both Scythian men and women were allowed to chase down game and charge into battle. Scythian warriors were formidable because they used small bows and rode horseback, allowing them to cut down enemies from a distance. Scythians not only enjoyed the breeze against their faces as they rode, but they also liked to smoke hemp and drink a beverage called kumis made of fermented horse milk. Scythian women may have fostered their sons into other tribes to build alliances, which may be why Greek writers accused Amazons of being boy-killers and bad mothers. The prowess of Scythian women is so great that myths inspired by them are still believed and debated today. Perhaps their greatest legacy is that the fear and admiration they drew from contemporaries still persists long after the last Scythian warrior died. For more lists like these, check out 10 Amazing Tales Of Women In Sieges, and 10 Strange Beauty Secrets Of History’s Most Beautiful Women.	<urn:uuid:1ee42c57-4d4d-42c9-9579-9ecaae6b78d6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://listverse.com/2019/12/12/10-reasons-it-was-great-to-be-a-woman-in-history/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00166.warc.gz	en	0.985155	2,344	3.703125	4	[ -0.5319470167160034, 0.4278295338153839, 0.14365610480308533, -0.060159966349601746, -0.4038180410861969, 0.18325719237327576, 0.23801878094673157, 0.46593743562698364, -0.23351478576660156, -0.007097436115145683, -0.09642282128334045, 0.20374572277069092, -0.033993225544691086, -0.022883739322423935, 0.000009025330655276775, 0.3236040472984314, -0.4042380452156067, 0.3537181317806244, -1.249332308769226, 0.44671177864074707, 0.20016081631183624, -0.29138222336769104, -0.13531410694122314, 0.10355052351951599, 0.47760307788848877, 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Just two centuries ago, American women had few rights. If they earned money, their husbands got to spend it as they saw fit. Divorce was hard to obtain even for men who were abused. When women started protesting for the right to vote, they were met with violence as well as scorn. All of this would mean that we wouldn’t judge someone if they thought life in the ancient world was even worse for women. However, there have been times and situations in history when being a woman was advantageous. Below are ten upsides to being a woman throughout history. 10 Spartan Women Got to Stay Home While the Men Were Away Many of us know that Spartan women had more rights than women in other Greek city-states. They also led lives than their husbands may have been jealous of. The advantages of being female in Sparta started during childhood. Spartan girls got to compete in athletic competitions — naked — with the boys. Spartan women were allowed to exchange words with men along with blows. Spartan women were not allowed to hold jobs, but they could earn money through the property they owned, which was sometimes given by the government. All of these liberties were given to Spartan women so they would birth fine babies that would grow up to be skillful soldiers. While Spartan women were allowed to live relatively freely at home, all Spartan men who were citizens were subject to compulsory military service. Their lives were dangerous and their wives sometimes profited financially from their death. Spartan men’s lives were not only dangerous, but tough and during their time of military service, it could be argued that they had less freedom than Spartan women. 9Women Were Sometimes Put in Power Because of Their Gender In ancient Egypt, women were sometimes installed into power precisely the same reason women leaders are criticized for today: their gender. This was because women were seen as the safer option during times of turmoil. While most pharaohs were men, women were sometimes allowed to rule as regents for their younger male relatives. They were expected to protect the future pharaoh and rule wisely until they were old enough to make their own decisions. The first Epytian queen who took up the throne while waiting for her son to grow up was Queen Merneith of the first dynasty (ca. 3000-2890 B.C) after the death of her husband. Similarly, Queen Hatshesput ruled as regent for her nephew. Queens didn’t always take control while waiting for their sons to grow up, though. Queen Neferusobek assumed control after her husband’s death because her husband had no heir and Cleopata VII had her brothers killed to cement her control of the throne. 8 Greek Women Were Feared to be Too Clever Sexism is an interesting beast that morphs depending on the situation. It is important to note that the views of women depended on the individual, but Hesiod’s Theogony suggests that some Greek men feared women because of their cleverness. In the Theogony, it is women who instigate rebellion. It is Gaia who devises a plan to kill Ouranos, though her son Kronos does the actual killing. Rhea deceives her husband Kronos into swallowing a swaddled stone instead of Zeus, so that he is able to grow up and topple his father. Perhaps what mostly clearly expresses Hesiod’s sexism is his opinion of Pandora whom he writes that “Wonder held immortal gods and mortal men, / when they saw a sheer cunning, unmanageable for men./ For from her is the descent of female women / [for the race and tribes of women are destructive,] / a great pain for mortals, living with men, / companions not of destructive Poverty but of Plenty.” (Hesiod lines 588-593). This passage articulate Hesiod’s conception of women: women are to be kept in their place because they are dangerous. In Hesiod’s Theogony, women shouldn’t be denied rights because they are unintelligent, but because they are too clever. Pandora is the perfect punishment for humanity because she is a woman, who are described as “sheer cunning.”. Though women in ancient Greece suffered from the effects of sexism like women in other cultures, at least it sometimes was because they were seen as too capable instead of not capable enough. 7 Greek Male Lovers Were Killed Instead of Adulteresses Adulteresses in ancient Greece didn’t get off lightly unless their husband decided to keep their wife’s infidelity secret. They were divorced — a huge blow in a society where women were forced to depend on men, denied the right to attend religious functions, and were seen as so low that strangers were now encouraged to beat them. However, when compared to the punishment of their lovers, adulteresses could be seen as lucky. If a man in Athens found him wife coupling with a man, he could kill the man without being found guilty of murder. This law reflects the fact that such killings were seen as justified. Killing a man for raping a female relative was also justified. In Greek mythology, the god of war, Ares, killed Posiedon’s son, Halirrhothios, for raping his daughter. Posiedon complained and the gods put Ares on trial, ultimately finding him not guilty. In some versions of the myth, Ares kills Halirrhothios while he is attacking his daughter, while at other times he does it afterwards in revenge. Either way, it reflects an idea that men should protect their daughters from rape and that violence is an acceptable way to do so. While most traditional and modern societies are either patriarchal or egalitarian, some ancient societies were matriarchies. Some of these matriarchal societies still exist today. On the island of Kihnu, women are in charge because of a centuries-long tradition of men travelling from the island to find food or employment. Due to the fact that men were often not home, women were left in charge. Today, the island relies on government assistance and tourism to keep their traditional way of life intact. In China, the Mosou society is matrilineal because the father is often unknown. Tourists come to see the Mosou because their traditional way of life, stretching back thousands of years, is matriarchal with female heading the households. 5Pleading the Belly Pregnancy truly is miraculous, but in some situations, it is even more welcomed than others. If an English women found herself facing the death penalty, she could claim to be pregnant to push back the date of her pregnancy — provided she was tried between 1387 and 1931. Whether a woman was actually pregnant or not was less important than whether she claimed to be. Recognizing that most mothers knew more about pregnancy than most men, female criminals who claimed to be pregnant were required to appear before a court of matrons who would evaluate their claim. Whether the court of matrons decided that the woman was pregnant was a deciding factor in if the accused’s life was spared. However, women who claimed to be pregnant also had to be examined by the judge. 4 They Could Be the Wives of Gods One way women have been able to use to gain power for thousands of years is through marriage. Some women were more creative than others and rather than marrying a wealthy man, Enheduanna simply married a god. Enheduanna was the daughter of Sargon the Great, a famous poet, and the high priestess. Enheduanna’s claim of being beloved by the gods was in her name itself, which translates as “En-Priestess, wife of the god Nanna”. Enheduanna presided over Ur as the high priestess for four decades, though she was temporarily exiled. Men also claimed to have divine consorts. As the goddess of both war and love Inana was one of the most powerful deities in the Mesoptoamian pantheon and kings often claimed to be husband. Kings even legitimized their divine claim to the throne through a ceremony known as a sacred marriage where the wedding of Inana and Dumzi was reenacted by the high priestess of Inana and the king. Thus, women in ancient Mesopotamia could bolster their claim to power by claiming to be the consort of a male deity, while Mesopotamian kings legitimized their claims to the throne by claiming to be the lover of a female deity. 3 Women May Have Painted a Lot of Cave Art Women have left their mark on history in many ways, but some ways were more prominent and direct than others. One of the most direct ways women influenced history was through art. By examining the hand and finger ratios (which differ depending on gender) of Paleolithic cave art, scientists concluded that women may have painted up to 75% of cave art. Another scientist claimed that the art was actually painted by adolescent boys who liked to depict animals and nude women. However, it is interesting to think about women shaping the world — sometimes quite literally by painting their own hands onto cave walls. 2 Strong Women Women in the ancient world didn’t just sweep their houses, mind their children, and style their hair. Instead, they sometimes worked like men. Between 7,500 and 2,000 years ago, women in Europe have worked outside the home as well as inside of it. Sometimes, their work was physically demanding. Archaeologists at Cambridge University examined the bones of European women to determine what kind of tasks they performed. Most of the women’s bones indicated that they had arms that would make elite rowers today envious. These findings suggest that women in early Europe farmed alongside men. However, the manual labor of women in early Europe may have been overlooked because of sexism of modern day scientists. Men tend to build muscle more easily than women and by overlooking this fact, scientists may have underestimated the amount of physical labor women in ancient societies performed. 1 Scythian Women Fought Like Men While some cultures throughout history were matriarchal, others were egalitarian. The Scythians, who may have inspired the Greek myths of the Amazons, was one such egalitarian society. Scythian society revolved around horses, which may explain why both Scythian men and women were allowed to chase down game and charge into battle. Scythian warriors were formidable because they used small bows and rode horseback, allowing them to cut down enemies from a distance. Scythians not only enjoyed the breeze against their faces as they rode, but they also liked to smoke hemp and drink a beverage called kumis made of fermented horse milk. Scythian women may have fostered their sons into other tribes to build alliances, which may be why Greek writers accused Amazons of being boy-killers and bad mothers. The prowess of Scythian women is so great that myths inspired by them are still believed and debated today. Perhaps their greatest legacy is that the fear and admiration they drew from contemporaries still persists long after the last Scythian warrior died. For more lists like these, check out 10 Amazing Tales Of Women In Sieges, and 10 Strange Beauty Secrets Of History’s Most Beautiful Women.	2,340	ENGLISH	1
Honor and Duty Rudyard Kipling, certainly one of England's heroic poets, worked well as a journalist in Punjab, India, that has been under English control. He wrote various poems and songs that rhymed and helped boost the morale of British troops on the battlefield while putting into action them with principles of reverance and obligation. In addition to the military, the individuals of England were also encouraged to support the war initiatives. The poetry became quite effective among the English people. Three of Kipling's poems, Young English Soldier, Tommy and Gunga Din were all components to a amount of poems permitted the Barack-Room Ballads. They were written within a Cockney language to gain support for the British armed forces during the World Wars from your larger inhabitants of reduce class people. They were used to convince the general public that in the event they did certainly not financially support the war efforts, they might be immoral. The duty in the people was going to show support for the fighting. It had been the only way they could demonstrate their commitment to the trigger and their nation, and bring about it. Kipling's poems, in many ways, were divulgacion and the purpose of the messages to the people were received. It convinced many to be wanting to do their particular honor and duty to aid the conflict effort simply by donating money and teenage boys to join the army. Cashflow increased and soon the British positions were filled up with fresh military from all classes. In addition to the effects on the citizens, the poetry were also utilized to increase the feeling of honor and duty among the soldiers serving in the armed forces. They became classic armed service fighting devise that influenced courage and persistence through some of their severe conditions. In Tommy, it was discussed the poor treatment received if they entered community pubs or perhaps walked over the streets. The soldier of Kipling's period defended the British Empire but was also chosen at due to his low birth in the class system. 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He wrote various poems and songs that rhymed and helped boost the morale of British troops on the battlefield while putting into action them with principles of reverance and obligation. In addition to the military, the individuals of England were also encouraged to support the war initiatives. The poetry became quite effective among the English people. Three of Kipling's poems, Young English Soldier, Tommy and Gunga Din were all components to a amount of poems permitted the Barack-Room Ballads. They were written within a Cockney language to gain support for the British armed forces during the World Wars from your larger inhabitants of reduce class people. They were used to convince the general public that in the event they did certainly not financially support the war efforts, they might be immoral. The duty in the people was going to show support for the fighting. It had been the only way they could demonstrate their commitment to the trigger and their nation, and bring about it. Kipling's poems, in many ways, were divulgacion and the purpose of the messages to the people were received. It convinced many to be wanting to do their particular honor and duty to aid the conflict effort simply by donating money and teenage boys to join the army. Cashflow increased and soon the British positions were filled up with fresh military from all classes. In addition to the effects on the citizens, the poetry were also utilized to increase the feeling of honor and duty among the soldiers serving in the armed forces. They became classic armed service fighting devise that influenced courage and persistence through some of their severe conditions. In Tommy, it was discussed the poor treatment received if they entered community pubs or perhaps walked over the streets. The soldier of Kipling's period defended the British Empire but was also chosen at due to his low birth in the class system. A large portion of the troops who entered the military were just commoners.	414	ENGLISH	1
Mary Ludwig Hays McCauley, otherwise known as Molly Pitcher, dies On this day in history, January 22, 1832, Mary Ludwig Hays McCauley, otherwise known as "Molly Pitcher," dies. The details of the Molly legend are somewhat uncertain. Molly Pitcher was actually a common name used for women who helped carry water to soldiers on the battlefield, so "Molly" is not necessarily referring to one person. Indeed, there are several "Mollies" that we know of. One "Molly" that we do know a fair amount about is Mary Ludwig Hays McCauley. Mary was born in Pennsylvania to a poor family. She worked as a servant in a doctor’s house for many years before she married William Hays of Carlisle, Pennsylvania. William Hays joined the Continental Army in May, 1777 in Bucks County, New Jersey, during the British occupation of that state. Mary joined William as a "camp follower" during the winter at Valley Forge that year. Camp followers were women who would travel with the army and perform tasks such as washing clothes, preparing food and caring for sick or dying soldiers. William was trained as an artilleryman during the winter of 1777-78 and Mary is known to have carried water to the trainees. When the winter ended, British Commander-in-Chief, Sir Henry Clinton received orders to evacuate Philadelphia, which was captured in 1777 and to concentrate his forces in New York instead. This was due to a reassessment of strategic needs due to France’s entry into the war. As Lt. Gen. Charles Cornwallis retreated from Philadelphia across New Jersey, George Washington attacked him at what is known as the Battle of Monmouth or the Battle of Monmouth Courthouse. During this battle, Mary’s husband William manned the cannons. The temperature was over 100 degrees that day and many men fell or died from heat exhaustion. Mary carried water from a nearby spring for her husband’s unit. The water was used by the men, but also to cool the cannon and the ramrod’s rag, a rag on the end of a stick used to clean excess gunpowder from the cannon after each shot. At some point in the battle, William collapsed, but did not die. He was carried off the field and Mary took his place. She continued cleaning the cannon between shots with her husband’s ramrod and loading the cannon for the next shot. Mary was nearly injured when a musket ball went between her legs and tore off the bottom part of her dress. At some point, it is alleged that George Washington actually saw Mary on the field and issued her a warrant as a non-commissioned officer after the battle. After the war, Mary went by the name "Molly" for the rest of her life. William Hays died in 1786, leaving Mary 200 acres of land he was awarded for his service in the war. She remarried to John McCauley in 1793 and continued doing domestic housework for the rest of her life. Around 1810, John McCauley tricked Mary into selling her land for a dirt cheap price and absconded with the money, leaving Mary penniless. In 1822, Mary was recognized by the Pennsylvania Government for her service in the war and awarded an annual veteran’s pension of $40 a year. She died at 88 and is buried in the Old Graveyard in Carlisle under the name "Molly McCauley." 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The details of the Molly legend are somewhat uncertain. Molly Pitcher was actually a common name used for women who helped carry water to soldiers on the battlefield, so "Molly" is not necessarily referring to one person. Indeed, there are several "Mollies" that we know of. One "Molly" that we do know a fair amount about is Mary Ludwig Hays McCauley. Mary was born in Pennsylvania to a poor family. She worked as a servant in a doctor’s house for many years before she married William Hays of Carlisle, Pennsylvania. William Hays joined the Continental Army in May, 1777 in Bucks County, New Jersey, during the British occupation of that state. Mary joined William as a "camp follower" during the winter at Valley Forge that year. Camp followers were women who would travel with the army and perform tasks such as washing clothes, preparing food and caring for sick or dying soldiers. William was trained as an artilleryman during the winter of 1777-78 and Mary is known to have carried water to the trainees. When the winter ended, British Commander-in-Chief, Sir Henry Clinton received orders to evacuate Philadelphia, which was captured in 1777 and to concentrate his forces in New York instead. This was due to a reassessment of strategic needs due to France’s entry into the war. As Lt. Gen. Charles Cornwallis retreated from Philadelphia across New Jersey, George Washington attacked him at what is known as the Battle of Monmouth or the Battle of Monmouth Courthouse. During this battle, Mary’s husband William manned the cannons. The temperature was over 100 degrees that day and many men fell or died from heat exhaustion. Mary carried water from a nearby spring for her husband’s unit. The water was used by the men, but also to cool the cannon and the ramrod’s rag, a rag on the end of a stick used to clean excess gunpowder from the cannon after each shot. At some point in the battle, William collapsed, but did not die. He was carried off the field and Mary took his place. She continued cleaning the cannon between shots with her husband’s ramrod and loading the cannon for the next shot. Mary was nearly injured when a musket ball went between her legs and tore off the bottom part of her dress. At some point, it is alleged that George Washington actually saw Mary on the field and issued her a warrant as a non-commissioned officer after the battle. After the war, Mary went by the name "Molly" for the rest of her life. William Hays died in 1786, leaving Mary 200 acres of land he was awarded for his service in the war. She remarried to John McCauley in 1793 and continued doing domestic housework for the rest of her life. Around 1810, John McCauley tricked Mary into selling her land for a dirt cheap price and absconded with the money, leaving Mary penniless. In 1822, Mary was recognized by the Pennsylvania Government for her service in the war and awarded an annual veteran’s pension of $40 a year. She died at 88 and is buried in the Old Graveyard in Carlisle under the name "Molly McCauley." National Society Sons of the American Revolution	753	ENGLISH	1
This is your morning Open Thread. Pour your favorite beverage and review the past and comment on the future. Find the past “On This Day in History” here. September 4 is the 247th day of the year (248th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. There are 118 days remaining until the end of the year. On this day in 1886, Apache chief Geronimo surrenders to U.S. government troops. For 30 years, the mighty Native American warrior had battled to protect his tribe’s homeland; however, by 1886 the Apaches were exhausted and hopelessly outnumbered. General Nelson Miles accepted Geronimo’s surrender, making him the last Indian warrior to formally give in to U.S. forces and signaling the end of the Indian Wars in the Southwest. While Geronimo (Chiricahua: Goyaale, “one who yawns”; often spelled Goyathlay or Goyahkla in English) said he was never a chief, he was a military leader. As a Chiricahua Apache, this meant he was one of many people with special spiritual insights and abilities known to Apache people as “Power”. Among these were the ability to walk without leaving tracks; the abilities now known as telekinesis and telepathy; and the ability to survive gunshot (rifle/musket, pistol, and shotgun). Geronimo was wounded numerous times by both bullets and buckshot, but survived. Apache men chose to follow him of their own free will, and offered first-hand eye-witness testimony regarding his many “powers”. They declared that this was the main reason why so many chose to follow him (he was favored by/protected by “Usen”, the Apache high-god). Geronimo’s “powers” were considered to be so great that he personally painted the faces of the warriors who followed him to reflect their protective effect. During his career as a war chief, Geronimo was notorious for consistently urging raids and war upon Mexican Provinces and their various towns, and later against American locations across Arizona, New Mexico, and western Texas. In 1886, General Nelson A. Miles selected Captain Henry Lawton, in command of B Troop, 4th Cavalry, at Ft. Huachuca and First Lieutenant Charles B. Gatewood to lead the expedition that captured Geronimo. Numerous stories abound as to who actually captured Geronimo, or to whom he surrendered, although most contemporary accounts, and Geronimo’s own later statements, give most of the credit for negotiating the surrender to Lt. Gatewood. For Lawton’s part, he was given orders to head up actions south of the U.S.-Mexico boundary where it was thought Geronimo and a small band of his followers would take refuge from U.S. authorities. Lawton was to pursue, subdue, and return Geronimo to the U.S., dead or alive. Lawton’s official report dated September 9, 1886 sums up the actions of his unit and gives credit to a number of his troopers for their efforts. Geronimo gave Gatewood credit for his decision to surrender as Gatewood was well known to Geronimo, spoke some Apache, and was familiar with and honored their traditions and values. He acknowledged Lawton’s tenacity for wearing the Apaches down with constant pursuit. Geronimo and his followers had little or no time to rest or stay in one place. Completely worn out, the little band of Apaches returned to the U.S. with Lawton and officially surrendered to General Miles on September 4, 1886 at Skeleton Canyon, Arizona. The debate still remains whether Geronimo surrendered unconditionally. Geronimo pleaded in his memoirs that his people who surrendered had been misled: his surrender as a war prisoner was conditioned in front of uncontested witnesses (especially General Stanley). General Howard, chief of Pacific US army division, said on his part that his surrender was accepted as a dangerous outlaw without condition, which has been contested in front of the Senate. In February, 1909, Geronimo was thrown from his horse while riding home, and had to lie in the cold all night before a friend found him extremely ill. He died of pneumonia on February 17, 1909 as a prisoner of the United States at Fort Sill, Oklahoma. On his deathbed, he confessed to his nephew that he regretted his decision to surrender. 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Pour your favorite beverage and review the past and comment on the future. Find the past “On This Day in History” here. September 4 is the 247th day of the year (248th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. There are 118 days remaining until the end of the year. On this day in 1886, Apache chief Geronimo surrenders to U.S. government troops. For 30 years, the mighty Native American warrior had battled to protect his tribe’s homeland; however, by 1886 the Apaches were exhausted and hopelessly outnumbered. General Nelson Miles accepted Geronimo’s surrender, making him the last Indian warrior to formally give in to U.S. forces and signaling the end of the Indian Wars in the Southwest. While Geronimo (Chiricahua: Goyaale, “one who yawns”; often spelled Goyathlay or Goyahkla in English) said he was never a chief, he was a military leader. As a Chiricahua Apache, this meant he was one of many people with special spiritual insights and abilities known to Apache people as “Power”. Among these were the ability to walk without leaving tracks; the abilities now known as telekinesis and telepathy; and the ability to survive gunshot (rifle/musket, pistol, and shotgun). Geronimo was wounded numerous times by both bullets and buckshot, but survived. Apache men chose to follow him of their own free will, and offered first-hand eye-witness testimony regarding his many “powers”. They declared that this was the main reason why so many chose to follow him (he was favored by/protected by “Usen”, the Apache high-god). Geronimo’s “powers” were considered to be so great that he personally painted the faces of the warriors who followed him to reflect their protective effect. During his career as a war chief, Geronimo was notorious for consistently urging raids and war upon Mexican Provinces and their various towns, and later against American locations across Arizona, New Mexico, and western Texas. In 1886, General Nelson A. Miles selected Captain Henry Lawton, in command of B Troop, 4th Cavalry, at Ft. Huachuca and First Lieutenant Charles B. Gatewood to lead the expedition that captured Geronimo. Numerous stories abound as to who actually captured Geronimo, or to whom he surrendered, although most contemporary accounts, and Geronimo’s own later statements, give most of the credit for negotiating the surrender to Lt. Gatewood. For Lawton’s part, he was given orders to head up actions south of the U.S.-Mexico boundary where it was thought Geronimo and a small band of his followers would take refuge from U.S. authorities. Lawton was to pursue, subdue, and return Geronimo to the U.S., dead or alive. Lawton’s official report dated September 9, 1886 sums up the actions of his unit and gives credit to a number of his troopers for their efforts. Geronimo gave Gatewood credit for his decision to surrender as Gatewood was well known to Geronimo, spoke some Apache, and was familiar with and honored their traditions and values. He acknowledged Lawton’s tenacity for wearing the Apaches down with constant pursuit. Geronimo and his followers had little or no time to rest or stay in one place. Completely worn out, the little band of Apaches returned to the U.S. with Lawton and officially surrendered to General Miles on September 4, 1886 at Skeleton Canyon, Arizona. The debate still remains whether Geronimo surrendered unconditionally. Geronimo pleaded in his memoirs that his people who surrendered had been misled: his surrender as a war prisoner was conditioned in front of uncontested witnesses (especially General Stanley). General Howard, chief of Pacific US army division, said on his part that his surrender was accepted as a dangerous outlaw without condition, which has been contested in front of the Senate. In February, 1909, Geronimo was thrown from his horse while riding home, and had to lie in the cold all night before a friend found him extremely ill. He died of pneumonia on February 17, 1909 as a prisoner of the United States at Fort Sill, Oklahoma. On his deathbed, he confessed to his nephew that he regretted his decision to surrender. He was buried at Fort Sill in the Apache Indian Prisoner of War Cemetery	957	ENGLISH	1
Wednesday Art ATTACK- John Englehart "Fishing" Posted on April 04 2017 By Christian Franzen John Englehart was an important 19th century West Coast landscape painter. Born and raised in Chicago, he possessed a romanticized love of the American West since childhood. In the 1880s, Englehart moved to Northern California to paint the grand landscapes of the West. He maintained a studio in San Francisco but constantly took trips to Yosemite and other scenic Northern California locations. Englehart found success in landscape painting, but was never looked at as a great landscape artist by the canon of the time. Many landscape painters did not like Englehart’s approach to landscape painting because it was a realistic rather than an idealized depiction of what the artist saw in the landscape. This idea was contradictory to the times leading landscape style of the Hudson River School. Englehart’s dedication to realism made him an outsider in the circles of 19th century landscape painters, but was later looked upon for inspiration in later landscape movements. 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Born and raised in Chicago, he possessed a romanticized love of the American West since childhood. In the 1880s, Englehart moved to Northern California to paint the grand landscapes of the West. He maintained a studio in San Francisco but constantly took trips to Yosemite and other scenic Northern California locations. Englehart found success in landscape painting, but was never looked at as a great landscape artist by the canon of the time. Many landscape painters did not like Englehart’s approach to landscape painting because it was a realistic rather than an idealized depiction of what the artist saw in the landscape. This idea was contradictory to the times leading landscape style of the Hudson River School. Englehart’s dedication to realism made him an outsider in the circles of 19th century landscape painters, but was later looked upon for inspiration in later landscape movements. Englehart continued to work in California in his San Francisco studio until his death in 1915.	244	ENGLISH	1
"Spanish flu" is the name given to the Influenza pandemic that ravaged the world population between 1918 and 1920. This particular strain of Influenza is arguably believed to have originated in Fort Riley, Kansas before spreading throughout the planet. During that time it is believed to have affected approximately 500 million people leading to between 20 and 50 million fatalities. At first thought to have been a particularly powerful strain, this belief was downgraded by its association with WWI's concentration of soldiers in US military camps (that were heavily affected by the disease) that were later deployed to Europe. In Europe it spread through the weakened and malnourished populations. Interestingly, information about the spread of this disease through North America and the allied countries of western Europe was suppressed by news media. However, its spread through neutral Spain was not suppressed. 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This particular strain of Influenza is arguably believed to have originated in Fort Riley, Kansas before spreading throughout the planet. During that time it is believed to have affected approximately 500 million people leading to between 20 and 50 million fatalities. At first thought to have been a particularly powerful strain, this belief was downgraded by its association with WWI's concentration of soldiers in US military camps (that were heavily affected by the disease) that were later deployed to Europe. In Europe it spread through the weakened and malnourished populations. Interestingly, information about the spread of this disease through North America and the allied countries of western Europe was suppressed by news media. However, its spread through neutral Spain was not suppressed. As it was the alleged cause of the death of Spain's king Alfonso XIII, it came to be known as "Spanish" Flu.	213	ENGLISH	1
Pol Pot had the idea to make everyone equal. He killed all smart and educated people, or people he saw as a threat. It was mainly doctors and teachers and occasionally other people but not very often. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Pol Pot vs Hitler" essay for youCreate order Hitler and Pol perfect worlds were a little bit different from each other. Pol Pot needed to make everybody equal which caused him to kill so many people. Hitler on the other side killed many different groups but the main group was Jews. He killed over 6 million jews. He hated everything about them, and their beliefs. Hitler also only wanted people with blue eyes and brown hair to stay alive. That was Hitler’s idea of a perfect world. When analyzing these two genocides Pol Pot and Hitler wanted power and both genocides affected the world then and still continues to affect the world today. Pol Pot and Hitler wanted control of their country and caused people to work and killed. Pol Pot wanted to take Cambodia back to the middle ages. Forcing millions to work on farms. Whole families died from execution, starvation, disease and overwork(BBC News). This was a huge part to the cambodian genocide because people worked probably around 12-14 hours a day with no food or water. Without food or water and you are working for that long often times you will end up with a disease of some type or die from starvation. Same as the Cambodian genocide, The first official concentration camp opened at Dachau (near Munich) in March 1933, and many of the first prisoners sent there were Communists(History). This first concentration camp started everything. It caused Hitler to gain even more power and set up more concentration camps where jews would be sent and killed. Pol Pot gained power and wanted Cambodia to go back to Middle ages causing them to restart and be known as Year Zero. Hitler hated Jews and gained power in order to kill the jews in concentration camps. Hitler in 1938 took full control of Germany and started a horrific genocide. Under the Nuremberg Laws, Jews became routine targets for stigmatization and persecution. This culminated in Kristallnacht, or the ‘night of broken glass’ in November 1938(History). This event was when the German synagogues happened. Causing windows in jewish shops were destroyed. Thousands of jews were killed and hundreds were arrested during this time period. Around a hundred thousands jews escaped before anything happened to them, while others stayed and paid the consequences. Yet Pol Pot started his domination another way. He started by evacuating every city in Cambodia causing around 20,000 people to die on the way. This was a very difficult time for everyone just because the forcibly evacuated people out of the cities. If people refused to leave they would be killed and they had to walk extremely far which caused people to die from starvation or exhaustion. Pol Pot and Hitler decided they both wanted camps where they could have people work and if they refused then they would get tortured or killed. Hitler would have all jews or people that were to sick or weak go to concentration camps where they would be tortured then gassed to death. The first mass gassings began at the camp of Belzec, near Lublin, on March 17, 1942. Five more mass killing centers were built at camps in occupied Poland, including Chelmno, Sobibor, Treblinka, Majdanek and the largest of all, Auschwitz-Birkenau(History). This was detrimental to everyone because they were being killed just because of their religion or because they were too old to work. Same as Pol pot he had camps where people would work on farms and if they were to sick or would not be able to work much longer they would be killed. He would also kill anyone who he saw as a threat which includes people with an education or he would even kill people if they wore glasses. Children were taken from their parents and placed in separate forced labour camps(Cambodia Genocide). Families had it the worst in during this genocide because they would be seperated and they had no way into knowing if their family was still alive. Hitler and the Nazi’s tried to keep everything a secret. Though the Nazis tried to keep operation of camps secret, the scale of the killing made this virtually impossible. Eyewitnesses brought reports of Nazi atrocities in Poland to the Allied governments(History). They did not want anybody knowing what they were doing for as long as they could. Pol Pot did the same thing he Khmer Rouge cut off all communication to the outside world so nobody could try and stop them for what they were doing. Until 1977, the Khmer Rouge’s top leadership (known as ‘Angkar Padevat’) worked in secret, with few outside of the party aware of their identities. The world had no idea these two genocides were going on making it so the rest of the world could not help. To this day and age the effects on the culture are still impacted to this day. People are still alive to this day making it so they have to know what they saw or went through. People who live to this day during these two event get reminded everyday that they were being punished just because of what they believed in. Same as the Cambodian genocide people were punished because they were smart. The Khmer Rouge believed that in order to complete this process the Year Zero they would have to kill anyone who was intelligent. People get affected by this genocide because still to this day because even though they had an education and wanted to do something with there life they were punished for it. People were also affected by losing their family members. Pol Pot separated all families causing them to never see each other again unless miraculously they all made it out alive. People to this day still have to deal with the loss of their family members from something that should have never happened. However Hitler had many concentration camps but he had one big one named Auschwitz. Not all families were separated but they were forced to see the killings of their own family members. This made it even worse for the people who survived it because they have to remember seeing the killings of their family members. Pol Pot and Hitler wanted to take over their countries and start a genocide so they could be in full control. Pol Pot did not want anyone with an education to be alive so he could restart and go back to the middle ages. Hitler on the other hand wanted all jews killed because he believed that the reason Germany lost in WW1 was because of the jews and he also hated their beliefs. Aljazeera editorsKey facts on the Khmer Rouge US and Canada, Aljazeera. 3 Feb 2012, 1 Nov 2018 Peace Pledge Union Information editors, Talking about genocide-Genocide Genocide, Peace Pledge Union Information. (N.D), 1 Nov 2018 History editors The Holocaust, History, A&E Television Networks, 14 Oct 2009, 1 Nov 2018 BBC editors Cambodia’s brutal Khmer Rouge regime News, BBC 4 Aug 2014, 1 Nov 2018 We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. 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He killed all smart and educated people, or people he saw as a threat. It was mainly doctors and teachers and occasionally other people but not very often. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Pol Pot vs Hitler" essay for youCreate order Hitler and Pol perfect worlds were a little bit different from each other. Pol Pot needed to make everybody equal which caused him to kill so many people. Hitler on the other side killed many different groups but the main group was Jews. He killed over 6 million jews. He hated everything about them, and their beliefs. Hitler also only wanted people with blue eyes and brown hair to stay alive. That was Hitler’s idea of a perfect world. When analyzing these two genocides Pol Pot and Hitler wanted power and both genocides affected the world then and still continues to affect the world today. Pol Pot and Hitler wanted control of their country and caused people to work and killed. Pol Pot wanted to take Cambodia back to the middle ages. Forcing millions to work on farms. Whole families died from execution, starvation, disease and overwork(BBC News). This was a huge part to the cambodian genocide because people worked probably around 12-14 hours a day with no food or water. Without food or water and you are working for that long often times you will end up with a disease of some type or die from starvation. Same as the Cambodian genocide, The first official concentration camp opened at Dachau (near Munich) in March 1933, and many of the first prisoners sent there were Communists(History). This first concentration camp started everything. It caused Hitler to gain even more power and set up more concentration camps where jews would be sent and killed. Pol Pot gained power and wanted Cambodia to go back to Middle ages causing them to restart and be known as Year Zero. Hitler hated Jews and gained power in order to kill the jews in concentration camps. Hitler in 1938 took full control of Germany and started a horrific genocide. Under the Nuremberg Laws, Jews became routine targets for stigmatization and persecution. This culminated in Kristallnacht, or the ‘night of broken glass’ in November 1938(History). This event was when the German synagogues happened. Causing windows in jewish shops were destroyed. Thousands of jews were killed and hundreds were arrested during this time period. Around a hundred thousands jews escaped before anything happened to them, while others stayed and paid the consequences. Yet Pol Pot started his domination another way. He started by evacuating every city in Cambodia causing around 20,000 people to die on the way. This was a very difficult time for everyone just because the forcibly evacuated people out of the cities. If people refused to leave they would be killed and they had to walk extremely far which caused people to die from starvation or exhaustion. Pol Pot and Hitler decided they both wanted camps where they could have people work and if they refused then they would get tortured or killed. Hitler would have all jews or people that were to sick or weak go to concentration camps where they would be tortured then gassed to death. The first mass gassings began at the camp of Belzec, near Lublin, on March 17, 1942. Five more mass killing centers were built at camps in occupied Poland, including Chelmno, Sobibor, Treblinka, Majdanek and the largest of all, Auschwitz-Birkenau(History). This was detrimental to everyone because they were being killed just because of their religion or because they were too old to work. Same as Pol pot he had camps where people would work on farms and if they were to sick or would not be able to work much longer they would be killed. He would also kill anyone who he saw as a threat which includes people with an education or he would even kill people if they wore glasses. Children were taken from their parents and placed in separate forced labour camps(Cambodia Genocide). Families had it the worst in during this genocide because they would be seperated and they had no way into knowing if their family was still alive. Hitler and the Nazi’s tried to keep everything a secret. Though the Nazis tried to keep operation of camps secret, the scale of the killing made this virtually impossible. Eyewitnesses brought reports of Nazi atrocities in Poland to the Allied governments(History). They did not want anybody knowing what they were doing for as long as they could. Pol Pot did the same thing he Khmer Rouge cut off all communication to the outside world so nobody could try and stop them for what they were doing. Until 1977, the Khmer Rouge’s top leadership (known as ‘Angkar Padevat’) worked in secret, with few outside of the party aware of their identities. The world had no idea these two genocides were going on making it so the rest of the world could not help. To this day and age the effects on the culture are still impacted to this day. People are still alive to this day making it so they have to know what they saw or went through. People who live to this day during these two event get reminded everyday that they were being punished just because of what they believed in. Same as the Cambodian genocide people were punished because they were smart. The Khmer Rouge believed that in order to complete this process the Year Zero they would have to kill anyone who was intelligent. People get affected by this genocide because still to this day because even though they had an education and wanted to do something with there life they were punished for it. People were also affected by losing their family members. Pol Pot separated all families causing them to never see each other again unless miraculously they all made it out alive. People to this day still have to deal with the loss of their family members from something that should have never happened. However Hitler had many concentration camps but he had one big one named Auschwitz. Not all families were separated but they were forced to see the killings of their own family members. This made it even worse for the people who survived it because they have to remember seeing the killings of their family members. Pol Pot and Hitler wanted to take over their countries and start a genocide so they could be in full control. Pol Pot did not want anyone with an education to be alive so he could restart and go back to the middle ages. Hitler on the other hand wanted all jews killed because he believed that the reason Germany lost in WW1 was because of the jews and he also hated their beliefs. Aljazeera editorsKey facts on the Khmer Rouge US and Canada, Aljazeera. 3 Feb 2012, 1 Nov 2018 Peace Pledge Union Information editors, Talking about genocide-Genocide Genocide, Peace Pledge Union Information. (N.D), 1 Nov 2018 History editors The Holocaust, History, A&E Television Networks, 14 Oct 2009, 1 Nov 2018 BBC editors Cambodia’s brutal Khmer Rouge regime News, BBC 4 Aug 2014, 1 Nov 2018 We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper	1,528	ENGLISH	1
African-American Struggle Essay The African-American Story In 1619, twenty Africans were brought to Virginia and forced into slavery. By 1790, there were 700,000 slaves in the United States and in the 1800s, African-American slaves were 40% of the Southern part of America (Brunner). Africans were not slaves before they were brought to America. They were kidnapped and shipped to the U. S. where were made into slaves. African-Americans have struggled for hundreds of years to gain equality. They staged boycotts, had marches, and even fought a war to gain their freedom and unprejudiced opportunities in every aspect of life. Africans were brought to America almost 400 years ago, and it took all of those years for the African-Americans to truly gain equal opportunities. In 1787, slavery was declared illegal in the Northwest Territories. This was the first time slavery was declared illegal in any part of the United States. The Fugitive Slave Law passed in 1793 stated that even if a slave escaped to a free territory they could still be captured and returned to their master. After 149 years of the importation of slaves, it was finally made illegal by congress in 1808 (Brunner). African-Americans were not content with being slaves. They did not just roll over and accept it. There is documented evidence of more than 250 slave revolts (Wright). One of the notable rebellions was Nat Turner’s revolt. Nat Turner launched a short, bloody, rebellion that killed over sixty people in Southampton County, Virginia in 1831 (Brunner). Another significant slave rebellion was John Brown’s raid on Harpers Ferry, Virginia. John Brown was already an advocate for anti-slavery. His plan was to break into an armory and give guns and weapons to slaves. His only problem was that he never made it out of the armory (Wright). These slave revolts were one of the causes of the Civil War. After the Slaves were freed in 1865 there was a century of darkness for recently freed African-American slaves. All the white people in the south hated them and the only job that they were able to get was being a sharecropper (Wright). Over the next 100 hundred years, the Klu-Klux-Klan grew to be the biggest group in America. The KKK recorded hundreds of lynchings of Africans, and made sure the south would not change even though blacks now had rights (Brunner). The African-American fight for equality restarted in 1954 when Brown v. Board of Education passed and desegregated all public schools. Two years later, black students nicknamed as the “Little Rock Nine,” attended Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. In 1955, one of the most brutal murders in history occured. Fourteen year-old Emmett Till was taken by two white men and beaten so severely that his own uncle could barely identify his body. The reason this boy was killed was because he flirted with a white woman (Wright) The sixties was one of the most influential times for African-Americans. In 1960 African-American students began nonviolent protests called, “sit-ins. ” They would go into a “whites only” restaurant and sit down. This event triggered many other types of peaceful protests. In 1961, black and white students took bus trips through the south and they were called the “freedom riders. ” They went through the most racist towns and were attacked by angry mobs. Martin Luther King was arrested in Birmingham, Alabama, in 1963 during an anti-segregation protest. Also, in that year King delivered his infamous “I Have a Dream” speech in Washington D. C. This was one of the reasons President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, making it illegal to discriminate on race, color, religion, or national origin. Unfortunately, Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated on April 4th, 1968 (Wright). There were many people that played significant roles in African-American history, like Abraham Lincoln, Jackie Robinson, Rosa Parks, and Martin Luther King Jr. Abraham Lincoln was the 16th President and was elected during hectic times between the north and south. He passed one of the biggest orders in the history of the United States, the Emancipation Proclamation. The Emancipation Proclamation declared that all slaves be freed (Brunner). In 1947, Jackie Robinson was given a contract to play for the Brooklyn Dodgers. This contract made it so that Jackie was the first African American to play Major League Baseball. He not only was the first African-American to play professional baseball, but he also broke the color-barrier in all professional sports. He was sent death letters, and even threatened by other athletes, but he still fought through everything and became the first African-American to be elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame. Without Jackie Robinson having the courage to play we might not have never experienced some of the greatest athletes of all time like Willie Mays, Michael Jordan, Muhammad Ali, Venus Williams and many more (Wright). On December 1st, 1955, an African-American woman by the name of Rosa Louise McCauley Parks was arrested for refusing the bus driver’s order for her to get up from her seat so a white man could sit down. During this time colored people had to sit in the back of the bus, and if a white person came on the bus they would have to give up their seat for them. Parks act of defiance inspired the Montgomery Bus Boycott, which was a plan for African-Americans to not ride buses for one whole day. The plan worked and the boycott went on until December 21st, 1956 when all buses were legally desegregated (Wright). There are forty-five million African-Americans in the United States today. 82% of the forty-five million have a high-school diploma or more. African-Americans are also very prominent in sports. They make up 65% of the entire National Football League, and 70% of all the professional Basketball players. One hundred years ago African-Americans were the most hated group of people next to Native Americans. They were segregated from white people and were rarely ever able to acquire a well paying job. African-Americans have struggled to gain equality in every aspect of life, but in this day and age they have gained it. We have an African-American President, and he was elected for to two terms. Without all of the struggles and fights African-Americans went through we would not be where we are today. Racism definitely still exists, but it is not as prominent of an issue, thanks to decades of perseverance and courage. Wright, Amy. “The Sixties. ” Jones Auditorium. Austin, TX. Lecture. Professor Amy Wright’s lecture on the sixties focused on the Civil Rights movement and the struggles African-Americans went through to gain equality. She provided an in depth understanding about the black freedom struggle. She talked about the Supreme Court case, Brown v. Board of Education, which integrated all schools and jump-started the Civil Rights movement. It also gave the audience a better knowledge of freedom fighters like Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr. Parks refused to move from her seat for a white man n Montgomery, Alabama, inspiring the Montgomery Bus Boycott of 1955, lead by Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. Wright spoke about how King formed the Southern Christian Leadership Conference to fight segregation and achieve rights. Also, how he lead the march on Washington and gave the infamous “I Have a Dream” speech. King helped enforce the passing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The Act gave African-Americans the right to vote and equal employment opportunities. Brunner, Borgna, ed. “African-American History Timeline. ” Infoplease. N. p. , n. d. Web. 25 Apr. 013. <http://www. infoplease. com/spot/bhmtimeline. html>. This source has a timeline that covers everything from Africans being forced into slavery in 1619, to Barack Obama being elected President of the Unites States of America. It gives a brief understanding of almost all the major events in African-American history. For example, Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin in 1793 and increased the demand for slave labor. The timeline shows that slavery was legal everywhere in the United States until 1787 when slavery became illegal in the Northwest Territory. In addition to, it talks about how W. E. B. Dubois created the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. The timeline also talks about sports and how in 1947 Jackie Robinson broke the color barrier in Major League Baseball. The owner of the Brooklyn Dodgers, Branch Rickey, gave him a contract to play for the Brooklyn Dodgers. Jackie Robinson was not only the first African-American to play in the Major League Baseball, but he was also the first African-American to play in any professional sport. Cite this African-American Struggle Essay African-American Struggle Essay. (2016, Oct 14). 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By 1790, there were 700,000 slaves in the United States and in the 1800s, African-American slaves were 40% of the Southern part of America (Brunner). Africans were not slaves before they were brought to America. They were kidnapped and shipped to the U. S. where were made into slaves. African-Americans have struggled for hundreds of years to gain equality. They staged boycotts, had marches, and even fought a war to gain their freedom and unprejudiced opportunities in every aspect of life. Africans were brought to America almost 400 years ago, and it took all of those years for the African-Americans to truly gain equal opportunities. In 1787, slavery was declared illegal in the Northwest Territories. This was the first time slavery was declared illegal in any part of the United States. The Fugitive Slave Law passed in 1793 stated that even if a slave escaped to a free territory they could still be captured and returned to their master. After 149 years of the importation of slaves, it was finally made illegal by congress in 1808 (Brunner). African-Americans were not content with being slaves. They did not just roll over and accept it. There is documented evidence of more than 250 slave revolts (Wright). One of the notable rebellions was Nat Turner’s revolt. Nat Turner launched a short, bloody, rebellion that killed over sixty people in Southampton County, Virginia in 1831 (Brunner). Another significant slave rebellion was John Brown’s raid on Harpers Ferry, Virginia. John Brown was already an advocate for anti-slavery. His plan was to break into an armory and give guns and weapons to slaves. His only problem was that he never made it out of the armory (Wright). These slave revolts were one of the causes of the Civil War. After the Slaves were freed in 1865 there was a century of darkness for recently freed African-American slaves. All the white people in the south hated them and the only job that they were able to get was being a sharecropper (Wright). Over the next 100 hundred years, the Klu-Klux-Klan grew to be the biggest group in America. The KKK recorded hundreds of lynchings of Africans, and made sure the south would not change even though blacks now had rights (Brunner). The African-American fight for equality restarted in 1954 when Brown v. Board of Education passed and desegregated all public schools. Two years later, black students nicknamed as the “Little Rock Nine,” attended Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. In 1955, one of the most brutal murders in history occured. Fourteen year-old Emmett Till was taken by two white men and beaten so severely that his own uncle could barely identify his body. The reason this boy was killed was because he flirted with a white woman (Wright) The sixties was one of the most influential times for African-Americans. In 1960 African-American students began nonviolent protests called, “sit-ins. ” They would go into a “whites only” restaurant and sit down. This event triggered many other types of peaceful protests. In 1961, black and white students took bus trips through the south and they were called the “freedom riders. ” They went through the most racist towns and were attacked by angry mobs. Martin Luther King was arrested in Birmingham, Alabama, in 1963 during an anti-segregation protest. Also, in that year King delivered his infamous “I Have a Dream” speech in Washington D. C. This was one of the reasons President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, making it illegal to discriminate on race, color, religion, or national origin. Unfortunately, Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated on April 4th, 1968 (Wright). There were many people that played significant roles in African-American history, like Abraham Lincoln, Jackie Robinson, Rosa Parks, and Martin Luther King Jr. Abraham Lincoln was the 16th President and was elected during hectic times between the north and south. He passed one of the biggest orders in the history of the United States, the Emancipation Proclamation. The Emancipation Proclamation declared that all slaves be freed (Brunner). In 1947, Jackie Robinson was given a contract to play for the Brooklyn Dodgers. This contract made it so that Jackie was the first African American to play Major League Baseball. He not only was the first African-American to play professional baseball, but he also broke the color-barrier in all professional sports. He was sent death letters, and even threatened by other athletes, but he still fought through everything and became the first African-American to be elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame. Without Jackie Robinson having the courage to play we might not have never experienced some of the greatest athletes of all time like Willie Mays, Michael Jordan, Muhammad Ali, Venus Williams and many more (Wright). On December 1st, 1955, an African-American woman by the name of Rosa Louise McCauley Parks was arrested for refusing the bus driver’s order for her to get up from her seat so a white man could sit down. During this time colored people had to sit in the back of the bus, and if a white person came on the bus they would have to give up their seat for them. Parks act of defiance inspired the Montgomery Bus Boycott, which was a plan for African-Americans to not ride buses for one whole day. The plan worked and the boycott went on until December 21st, 1956 when all buses were legally desegregated (Wright). There are forty-five million African-Americans in the United States today. 82% of the forty-five million have a high-school diploma or more. African-Americans are also very prominent in sports. They make up 65% of the entire National Football League, and 70% of all the professional Basketball players. One hundred years ago African-Americans were the most hated group of people next to Native Americans. They were segregated from white people and were rarely ever able to acquire a well paying job. African-Americans have struggled to gain equality in every aspect of life, but in this day and age they have gained it. We have an African-American President, and he was elected for to two terms. Without all of the struggles and fights African-Americans went through we would not be where we are today. Racism definitely still exists, but it is not as prominent of an issue, thanks to decades of perseverance and courage. Wright, Amy. “The Sixties. ” Jones Auditorium. Austin, TX. Lecture. Professor Amy Wright’s lecture on the sixties focused on the Civil Rights movement and the struggles African-Americans went through to gain equality. She provided an in depth understanding about the black freedom struggle. She talked about the Supreme Court case, Brown v. Board of Education, which integrated all schools and jump-started the Civil Rights movement. It also gave the audience a better knowledge of freedom fighters like Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr. Parks refused to move from her seat for a white man n Montgomery, Alabama, inspiring the Montgomery Bus Boycott of 1955, lead by Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. Wright spoke about how King formed the Southern Christian Leadership Conference to fight segregation and achieve rights. Also, how he lead the march on Washington and gave the infamous “I Have a Dream” speech. King helped enforce the passing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The Act gave African-Americans the right to vote and equal employment opportunities. Brunner, Borgna, ed. “African-American History Timeline. ” Infoplease. N. p. , n. d. Web. 25 Apr. 013. <http://www. infoplease. com/spot/bhmtimeline. html>. This source has a timeline that covers everything from Africans being forced into slavery in 1619, to Barack Obama being elected President of the Unites States of America. It gives a brief understanding of almost all the major events in African-American history. For example, Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin in 1793 and increased the demand for slave labor. The timeline shows that slavery was legal everywhere in the United States until 1787 when slavery became illegal in the Northwest Territory. In addition to, it talks about how W. E. B. Dubois created the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. The timeline also talks about sports and how in 1947 Jackie Robinson broke the color barrier in Major League Baseball. The owner of the Brooklyn Dodgers, Branch Rickey, gave him a contract to play for the Brooklyn Dodgers. Jackie Robinson was not only the first African-American to play in the Major League Baseball, but he was also the first African-American to play in any professional sport. Cite this African-American Struggle Essay African-American Struggle Essay. (2016, Oct 14). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/african-american-struggle/	1,960	ENGLISH	1
In the early months of 1919, David Lloyd George, Woodrow Wilson, and Georges Clemenceau together held as much influence over world affairs as any three men in history. They had the power to redraw borders, determine forms of government for foreign countries, and influence the destinies of people around the world. “The big three (or maybe four)” describes the views of these three men, the challenges ahead of them, and how they influenced the peace conference. It also explains the role of Italy’s prime minister, Vittorio Orlando, who also wanted a place at the negotiating table, and the input of Japan, which was keen to increase its influence in the Pacific Rim. In the early months of 1919, David Lloyd George, Woodrow Wilson, and Georges Clemenceau together held as much influence over world affairs as any three men in history. They had the power to redraw borders, determine forms of government for foreign countries, and influence the destinies of people around the world. Historians can make too much of the importance of individuals in shaping history, but there is no denying that these three men played enormous roles in the final outcome of the Treaty of Versailles. There can be no understanding of the peace conference or the treaties it produced without an understanding of these three men, what they had in common, and the areas where they disagreed. All three represented democracies, although they had taken different routes to power. Lloyd George came out of the coal-mining communities of Wales and had championed the cause of working people against the privileges of the commercial and landed elites. As chancellor of the exchequer in the years before the war, he had helped to usher in many elements of the British welfare state. He had also made many enemies, especially among Britain’s conservatives, for his financial policies, his desire to curb the power of the House of Lords, and his outspoken opposition to Britain’s prosecution of the Boer War in South Africa. His antiwar speech in Birmingham in 1899 caused a riot that led to the deaths p. 31↵of two people and forced Lloyd George himself to escape from the hall disguised as a policeman. His opposition to the Boer War notwithstanding, he was not a pacifist. He did, however, oppose unjust wars fought for the purpose of extending the empire’s reach or for the benefit of financial markets. The outbreak of war in 1914 led him to ask some deep and probing questions about how and why it began, but he never questioned the basic wisdom or necessity of Britain’s engagement in it, however ominous and fateful he thought the war might be. The German invasion of Belgium convinced Lloyd George and many other politicians from his Liberal Party that Britain had no choice but to fight. He argued in a critical speech in August 1914 that his support for Britain’s war against Germany reflected the same ideals that had let him to defend the Boers, namely the immorality of the strong dominating the weak by means of military force. As Britain had unjustly gone to war with the Boers, so, too, had the Germans unjustly invaded Belgium and France. He saw more quickly than most that the war would not end in a few short months and that Great Britain would therefore need to prepare itself for a long, costly conflict. He rejected Prime Minister H. H. Asquith’s 1914 call for “business as usual” and worked instead to bring centralization and modernization into British industry. Despite the enemies he had made over his years of political infighting and accusations that he had more mistresses than principles, Lloyd George took on increasingly important roles during the war. His understanding of the demands of modern war and his background in coal country gave him distinct advantages as his responsibilities over the British wartime economy increased. He became the inaugural minister for munitions in 1915, charged with modernizing weapons manufacturing, and then the secretary of state for war in 1916. Even his critics came to respect the way he reorganized British industry, bolstered the morale of the workforce (despite his calls for limiting the hours British pubs p. 32↵could remain open), and projected his faith in final victory. He showed a willingness to work with groups as diverse as suffragettes and the opposition Conservatives to pursue the shared national interest in the defeat of Germany. By 1918 he was, and at least for a few months longer would remain, a popular and deeply admired leader who came to the Paris Peace Conference able to boast of having a mandate from his people to speak on their behalf. Although the two men were very different people, Lloyd George’s path to the peace conference shared much with that of his French counterpart, Georges Clemenceau. Both were from poor places relatively isolated from the centers of power. Lloyd George hailed from Wales and Clemenceau from the Vendée in western France, a region with a reputation for its unstable political atmosphere. Like Lloyd George, Clemenceau had also made enemies among his country’s conservatives, in Clemenceau’s case for his opposition to the privileges of the wealthy and the Catholic Church. He had been a prime leader of the movement to exonerate the falsely accused Alsatian Jewish officer Alfred Dreyfus, whom the French army had tried to frame for treason in the 1890s. He, too, had a reputation for fierce political infighting and had fought many duels in his younger days. As a journalist, he had used his newspaper to bring down numerous French governments of which he disapproved. His great rival, French president Raymond Poincaré, once said of Clemenceau that he was a man made for catastrophes: if he could not prevent them, he would provoke them. Clemenceau and Lloyd George may have been deeply unpopular with conservatives in their own countries, but they both had solid reputations as patriots. Clemenceau had been the mayor of the Montmartre section of Paris during the Franco-Prussian War and had opposed the peace treaty with Germany that resulted in the surrender of Alsace-Lorraine. As early as September 1914, he had emerged as a vocal and intense critic of the French government for not fighting the war with sufficient ardor and competence. p. 33↵In return the government heavily censored his newspaper, L’Homme Libre (The Free Man). Clemenceau responded by renaming the paper L’Homme Enchaîné (The Man in Chains) and maintaining his criticisms despite pressure from the government. Lloyd George had developed a similar reputation for patriotism. He became known for his speech at Mansion House in 1911 defending the rights and honor of Great Britain on the world stage. The speech came in the midst of a diplomatic row between France and Germany. It pledged British support for France, and Lloyd George’s service during the war further showed that, despite his criticisms of the British establishment, he was as dedicated to the British cause as anyone. Unlike Clemenceau, however, Lloyd George was a member of the British government in 1914. He therefore worked within the system rather than from the outside. Somewhat to the surprise of many of their fellow countrymen, Lloyd George and Clemenceau both rose to head their governments before the war’s end. Lloyd George became prime minister of a coalition government in December 1916, and Clemenceau returned to that job in France (he had been prime minister from 1906 to 1909) in November 1917. Both men advocated fighting a war to the end against Germany. Clemenceau also became the war minister as well as prime minister. When asked for specifics of his policies, he often said simply, “Je fais la guerre” (I make war). Lloyd George solidified political alliances with British conservatives, won over key newspaper barons, and extended Britain’s war in the Middle East as well. Both men also showed a willingness to stand up to their generals and impose their own view of grand strategy, a foreshadowing of the way they isolated their military advisors at the Paris Peace Conference. Neither man showed much deference to the military expertise of the generals, as their predecessors had done. Instead, they often made strategic decisions contrary to the desires of those p. 34↵same generals. Lloyd George took military forces in Belgium and France away from British Expeditionary Forces commander Gen. Sir Douglas Haig, a man he despised and derided. Against the advice of most of Britain’s senior military officers, Lloyd George sent forces later in the war to Italy and to Palestine, hoping to find victory somewhere other than the frustrating western front. In Palestine, at least, he got what he wanted, as British forces seized Jerusalem, setting up both British power in the region and conflicts with the French in the months after the war. He also touched off a furor inside the British army in the spring of 1917 when he temporarily put British forces under the command of the French general Robert Nivelle. That idea proved ill-fated, as Nivelle’s offensive failed miserably, leaving behind tensions between Lloyd George and the generals that never healed. Clemenceau had the benefit of having seen the Franco-Prussian War and having covered the end of the American Civil War as a young reporter. These experiences, plus his natural aversion to the conservatives who ran the army, made him more than willing to challenge his own generals. Clemenceau forced his will on military strategy, kept officers from playing key roles at primarily political bodies like the Supreme War Council, and coined the phrase that war was too important a business to be left to generals. He instinctively understood the essential insight of the Prussian military theorist Karl von Clausewitz that war is at its heart a political act. It therefore needed to have politicians, not generals, directing it. Nevertheless, neither man had made his political name on foreign policy or defense issues. Nor had either one traveled much beyond his own borders on official diplomatic missions. Neither one knew much about the complexities of places like central Europe, the Middle East, or Russia. Clemenceau, however, may have had some important insights into the nature of the United States from his time spent there and from his (ultimately unhappy) marriage to an American woman. He may have understood even better than p. 35↵Woodrow Wilson the significance of the Republican triumph in the 1918 congressional elections. He appears to have grasped with his politician’s sixth sense that the election had fundamentally undermined Wilson’s position. Wilson shared the general ignorance of global affairs with his two European counterparts. He had even remarked to a friend on the eve of his inauguration in 1913 that “it would be an irony of fate if my administration had to deal chiefly with foreign affairs.” He had given little thought to the rest of the world before becoming president, although he had an unshakable belief in American moral superiority that guided his views of the world beyond America’s shores. Although he did not face the risk of his government collapsing as could happen in a European parliamentary system, Wilson was never a popular president. He had won the 1912 election primarily because of a split in the Republican Party, and he won reelection in 1916 by one of the slimmest margins in American history. Wilson had in fact gone to bed the night of the election certain that he had lost. About 2,500 voters in normally Republican California gave Wilson just enough votes to win and thereby avoid the humiliation of becoming only the second incumbent president not to win reelection. Wilson certainly had his enemies, most notable among them the popular former president Theodore Roosevelt, but he could inspire followers as well. Progressive reformers and journalists often saw Wilson in near-messianic terms as the herald of a new age in American history and maybe the world’s history as well. When the moral example of America proved insufficient, Wilson did not shy away from using force, as he did in sending American troops to Mexico, Haiti, and, later, Russia. Hoping to keep America out of the war in Europe, but sharing his countrymen’s general hope for Allied victory, Wilson had played a double game between 1914 and 1917. He called for the American people to be impartial in regard to the war, but he had at the p. 36↵same time defined neutrality in such a way as to allow (or even encourage) American bankers, farmers, and industrialists to profit from the war. For reasons that were both practical and ideological, most American trade went to the Allies. American policy from 1914 to 1917 thus infuriated the Germans, who came to see the United States as a belligerent in all but name. Wilson’s policy also angered the British and French, who believed that the United States shared their general war aims but chose to profit from the war rather than commit itself to the shared goal of defeating German militarism. The tensions in Wilson’s foreign policy reflected his uncertain political position at home. Wilson knew that he would face a serious challenge for reelection in 1916, as the split in the Republican Party had healed. Theodore Roosevelt, the man who had caused the split by forming his own party in 1912, had pledged to support the Republican nominee in 1916, in large part out of his desire to see Wilson beaten. He even considered running for president himself. Some surprising losses by Democrats in the 1914 congressional elections seemed to point to Wilson’s vulnerability. Although the war in Europe was only one factor among many for the American electorate, it put Wilson in an awkward spot, as he had to navigate between the isolationist wing of his Democratic Party, represented by his own secretary of state, William Jennings Bryan, and the increasingly shrill condemnation of his continued policy of neutrality coming from the Republicans. The president’s response to the German sinking of the Lusitania in May 1915, in which 128 Americans were killed, proved to be a turning point for both sets of his critics. Wilson had refused the demands of isolationists to ban Americans from traveling overseas in recognition of the increased risk they now faced and the possibility of a future sinking leading the United States into war. Wilson saw such a move as inconsistent with American honor, a position that led Bryan to resign as secretary of state. On the other p. 37↵hand, Wilson had publicly stated in a speech he gave in Philadelphia that the United States was “too proud to fight,” words that filled his Republican critics with anger and shame and led many of the most prominent among them to end their public support of the administration’s foreign policy and work for his defeat in 1916. Wilson had a hard time finding policies that both upheld the nation’s honor and avoided American entry into a war he knew the United States was in no position to fight. He mostly drew praise for his peaceful resolution of the Lusitania crisis as well as his handling of the 1916 German torpedoing of a civilian ferry ship, the Sussex, which injured several Americans. After the Sussex, Wilson extracted a promise from the Germans to stop unrestricted submarine warfare. The Sussex Pledge allowed Wilson to position himself in 1916 as the candidate of peace and to use the campaign slogan “He Kept Us Out of War,” even though Wilson knew that he could not continue his diplomatic balancing act forever. With each act of German aggression, his strategy of demanding concessions without threatening war would grow less and less effective both at home and abroad. When the Germans resumed unrestricted submarine warfare in February 1917, thereby invalidating the Sussex Pledge, most Americans saw that war with Germany had become inevitable. Wilson still held out hope that he could avoid war as he had done in 1915 and 1916, but the release of the Zimmermann Telegram, in which the Germans proposed an anti-American alliance with Mexico and Japan, severely limited his options. Wilson’s responses to American entry into the war in April 1917 reveal a great deal about his views toward war and the way he wanted to shape the peace that would follow. Much more than Clemenceau or Lloyd George, Wilson believed that wars came from regimes, not peoples. Freely elected governments, he said, did not send their citizens off to war in the modern age except in self-defense. The problem in Germany was not the German people, therefore, but their aristocratic and unrepresentative p. 38↵government. Change the government by deposing the kaiser and instituting true democracy, and the German people could assume their rightful place in Europe. Thus in his declaration-of-war speech he emphasized, “We have no quarrel with the German people. We have no feeling towards them but one of sympathy and friendship. It was not upon their impulse that their Government acted in entering this war.” Neither Clemenceau nor Lloyd George shared Wilson’s version of recent history. While both distrusted the kaiser’s government, they saw other causes at work. Like most British strategists, Lloyd George believed that the traditional European strategic balance of power had failed. One state (in this case Germany, abetted by Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire) had grown too powerful to be contained or deterred by the prewar alliance system that the great powers had so carefully crafted. In the postwar era, he believed, a Europe dominated by a too powerful France could be just as unstable as the prewar era had been. Thus the British had opposed the detachment of the Rhineland from Germany as, in Lloyd George’s words, an Alsace-Lorraine in reverse. For the same reason, the British were reluctant to commit to a permanent alliance with France in the postwar years. Clemenceau laid the blame squarely at the feet of the Germans, a state and a people that had, in his view, been an existential threat to France since its unification in 1871. Fueled by a hyper-nationalist ideology and powered by a highly industrialized economy, Germany had chosen to threaten and bully its neighbors. Only an international coalition working together in a four-year total war could stop it. Clemenceau did not share Wilson’s hope that a democratic government could properly channel the energies of the German people, nor did he put much faith in the Germans accepting their defeat and reforming themselves. He demanded protections from Germany for his native France, which, unlike the United States or Great Britain, still had to live next door to its traditional enemy.p. 39↵ Although there were no socialists among the plenipotentiaries of the great powers, they offered a different opinion on the causes of the war. They tended to believe that the war had been caused by the concentration of wealth and power that resulted from the inherent nature of the capitalist system. The profiteering of arms manufacturers and imperialists had created conflict between the great powers that eventually spilled out into a global war. The Big Three, as Wilson, Lloyd George, and Clemenceau came to be known, successfully kept such ideas out of the conference rooms, but they knew how popular those same ideas were with segments of all of their populations. Each leader’s views about how and why the war had started naturally influenced ideas about the peace. Wilson came to be the leader of an ideology called liberal idealism, or internationalism, p. 40↵that called for the creation of structures above the nation-state. Advocates believed that such a system could resolve disputes before they turned into wars. They also argued that building institutional networks of cooperation (most importantly through global trade) between nation-states would give states incentives to work together instead of seeing the world as a zero-sum game. Wilson thus championed the formation of a League of Nations, an idea that had its origins in the late eighteenth century but had languished until the war seemed to show the need for some supranational body that could help the world avoid future catastrophes. Clemenceau and Lloyd George did not necessarily oppose the formation of an international body, but they did not believe that such an organization could or should replace the role of the nation-state. Clemenceau in particular wanted the League of Nations to act as a kind of permanent international alliance against German resurgence. Neither he nor Lloyd George put much faith in the effectiveness of the League of Nations to fulfill Wilson’s vision, but, knowing how important it was to the president, they used their support for it as a bargaining chip. So, too, did the Italians and Japanese, both of whom occasionally threatened not to join the League unless they obtained some of their key demands in return. Nor could powerful states be expected to cede some of their power to an international group unless they could control its outcomes. The League had as one of its principles that all states would be represented equally regardless of size, even though five of the nine places in the governing League Council would be held by the war’s great victors. Lloyd George, Clemenceau, and Henry Cabot Lodge all thought an egalitarian structure foolish, as it would inevitably dilute their own states’ power. Many Europeans also wanted to keep the Russians and Germans out of the League until they adopted democratic forms of government. But the more states that stayed out of the League, the less power and legitimacy it would have. p. 41The Big Three dominated the Paris Peace Conference, but they were not alone. Italy believed that it deserved a place at the table and significant rewards for its declaration of war against Austria-Hungary in May 1915. Italy’s prime minister, Vittorio Orlando, styled himself the “Premier of Victory,” but his position at the conference was weak. The British and French especially resented Italy for, in their view, auctioning off Italy’s services to both sides before deciding that the Allies could offer them more than the Germans could. Italy’s mediocre performance on the battlefield and its need for massive Allied aid after the collapse of the Italian army at the Battle of Caporetto in October 1917 further undermined the Italian position. Orlando also had severe political and personal limitations. He spoke little English and only halting French but did not like having to rely on translators, so he rarely used them. He was himself a member of the Italian Liberal Party but had to work with the powerful Sidney Sonnino, the foreign minister and a former prime minister. Sonnino was a member of the opposition Historical Right Party, which had major foreign policy disagreements with the Liberals, especially in their demand that Italy annex Dalmatia and Fiume. The Big Three were staunchly opposed to those annexations; thus Orlando found himself in the awkward position of having to balance the obstinacy of his allies with the demands of his own government. He also knew that if Italy did not come out of the conference with tangible gains, the constitutional monarchy itself might not survive an armed challenge from the left or the right. At one point during the conference, the stress led him to break down sobbing in front of his fellow statesmen, underscoring their view of him as an amiable gentleman but a hopelessly weak politician. He walked out of the conference in protest in April and then resigned as prime minister on June 23, just before the signing of the Treaty of Versailles. He did not attend the signing ceremony. Sonnino proved to be even more difficult for the Allies to deal with than Orlando. On the surface, Sonnino might have been the kind p. 42↵of man to get along with the Big Three. He was in fact half Welsh, which might have endeared him to Lloyd George. He was also, like Lloyd George and Clemenceau, an outsider, half Jewish by birth and Protestant by faith in an overwhelmingly Catholic country. But Sonnino shared none of Wilson’s ideals, did not defend Italy’s positions well, and always seemed to be asking for much more than the Big Three thought Italy deserved. They were soon wistful for the days when Orlando represented Italy in Paris. Any Italian statesman would have found himself in a difficult position in Paris. Uncertain of popular support for Italian entry into the war, the government had promised a quick march to Vienna followed by massive gains for Italy in the Trentino, the Adriatic coast, and even parts of the Ottoman Empire. But the war had turned out to be bloody and inconclusive, with a stalemate in the Julian Alps alongside the Isonzo River. The collapse at Caporetto led to the change of government that brought Orlando to power, and it also led to a new military command structure. The Italians ended the war with a major victory over exhausted Austro-Hungarian forces at the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, raising Italian hopes for the peace conference. Such hopes, unrealistic though they were, inspired such Italian demagogues as the poet and aviator Gabriele d’Annunzio and the journalist and war veteran Benito Mussolini. They called for massive expansions of Italian territory and threatened violence against the government if it did not find some way to achieve them. They pledged to oppose with force the proposed creation of a large Slavic state opposite the Adriatic Sea from Italy. Some had begun to talk of a “mutilated victory” and spazio vitale (vital living space). They came to see Britain and France as enemies of Italy for denying Italy its just compensation for its wartime contributions. Although the French and British did not see just how unstable Italian hyper-nationalism would become, Orlando and Sonnino did. They also knew that strong Italian opposition to the creation of Yugoslavia would force them to take a harsh line against it despite the Big p. 43↵Three’s support for it. Orlando refused to meet with the Yugoslav delegates and even went so far as to call them enemies of Italy. Some non-Europeans played key roles as well. Jan Smuts, a former Boer commander, parlayed an unusual political career into a prominent role at the conference. Fearing a German takeover of South Africa in 1914, then seeing a chance for South Africa to conquer German colonial possessions in Africa, Smuts rose by 1917 to a seat on the Imperial War Cabinet, where he became a critical advisor to Lloyd George, despite turning down Lloyd George’s offer to become commander of British forces in the Middle East. Smuts wanted South Africa to take over German Southwest Africa (later Namibia), but he also favored lenient terms against Germany more generally and supported the League of Nations. He eventually became the key advocate of the mandate system by which the British and French took over effective political control of large parts of the former Ottoman Empire. p. 44As a group, the men in positions of power in Paris believed deeply in the superiority of white people, whether in Virginia, Palestine, or Namibia. They occasionally listened politely to the entreaties of people from Africa and Asia but rarely took their opinions or their concerns seriously. They never did grasp how deeply the four murderous years of the war had undermined the ideals of European superiority on which their empires had been constructed. They still believed themselves to be at the top of the evolutionary pyramid and therefore to still deserve the right to shape the destinies of people around the globe, even without seeking their consent. With the possible exception of Woodrow Wilson, they also believed that having suffered deep human and material losses, their societies were entitled to a share of whatever spoils were to be had. The one exception to this general pattern of European feelings of superiority over the rest of the world involved Japan, which had emerged as a serious rival and occasional partner to the Big Three. Since opening to the West in the 1850s, Japan had modernized and developed into a major power. It had defeated China in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–95, Russia in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, and then German forces in China and in the Marshall, Marianas, and Caroline Islands. Thanks to its naval alliance with Great Britain, Japan was also the only non-European state in a formal alliance with a European one. European statesmen were never quite sure whether to read Japan as a looming threat or a potential ally for their own goals of power projection, but by 1919 more of them were coming to the former rather than the latter view. For their part, Japanese leaders knew that the European influence in Asia would likely decline after the war, and they very much wanted to be the power that would fill in the resulting vacuum. Their delegation to Paris was led by Prince Saionji Kinmochi, a seventy-year-old elder statesman and former prime minister who had studied at the Sorbonne and had been a classmate of Georges p. 45↵Clemenceau there. Japanese leaders mistrusted the principles of Woodrow Wilson, seeing right through his noble-sounding ideals to the racist core that underlay them. As one Japanese newspaper wrote, Wilson was an angel in rhetoric but a devil in deed. The Japanese knew that Wilson held Asians to a lower standard of development than he did Europeans. They also blamed Wilson’s promises of national self-determination for the rise in anti-Japanese sentiment in both China and Korea. Hoping to catch Wilson in a trap and expose his hypocrisy, the Japanese delegates came to Paris seeking to force the insertion of a racial equality clause into the final treaty. Either the Allies would agree, and thereby undercut their own rationale for imperialism, or they would refuse and give the Japanese a tremendous public relations victory across Asia, especially inside the European and American colonial empires. The Japanese also came to Paris hoping to increase their influence in the Pacific Rim more generally. The Allies had pledged to give Japan permanent influence or control over any German colonial territories north of the equator that they could capture. Having done its part, Japan expected to be rewarded, not only with those islands, but also with concessions in the indisputably Chinese region of the Shandong Peninsula, controlled by Germany before the war. Shandong loomed as a potential roadblock to everything Wilson wanted to accomplish. Unquestionably Chinese, it might have to be placed under Japanese control in order to assure Japanese participation in Wilson’s cherished League of Nations. But if the Big Four (if one wants to be generous and include Italy’s Orlando) were powerful, they were not omnipotent. They all came from fractious, democratic political systems with many overlapping and contrasting interest groups. Their citizens by no means agreed on what they wanted to see the peace conference accomplish. Many of them had already become deeply disillusioned with the very systems the Big Four represented, and p. 46↵a violent minority of them, from both the left and the right, had begun to plot revolution. 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-0.2553474009037018, 0.8173425793647766, -0.8872110247612, -0.0065816184505820274, -0.0027219215407967567, 0.28157249093055725, 0.007421242538839579, 0.04820580035448074, 0.10484915971755981, -0.10067817568778992, -0.12938667833805084, 0.2448694407939911, -0.4295611083507538, 0.8401499390602112, 0.4551371932029724, 0.12111081928014755, -0.3201035261154175, 0.12419281899929047, 0.05005711317062378, -0.34422752261161804, 0.2920677661895752, -0.001015674788504839, 0.432475209236145, 0.23322075605392456, 0.19340237975120544, -0.24699240922927856, 0.41541141271591187, 0.3715933561325073, 0.23986229300498962, -0.10795630514621735, -0.30165794491767883, 0.0028903279453516006, -0.05123281478881836, 0.24105823040008545 ]	1	In the early months of 1919, David Lloyd George, Woodrow Wilson, and Georges Clemenceau together held as much influence over world affairs as any three men in history. They had the power to redraw borders, determine forms of government for foreign countries, and influence the destinies of people around the world. “The big three (or maybe four)” describes the views of these three men, the challenges ahead of them, and how they influenced the peace conference. It also explains the role of Italy’s prime minister, Vittorio Orlando, who also wanted a place at the negotiating table, and the input of Japan, which was keen to increase its influence in the Pacific Rim. In the early months of 1919, David Lloyd George, Woodrow Wilson, and Georges Clemenceau together held as much influence over world affairs as any three men in history. They had the power to redraw borders, determine forms of government for foreign countries, and influence the destinies of people around the world. Historians can make too much of the importance of individuals in shaping history, but there is no denying that these three men played enormous roles in the final outcome of the Treaty of Versailles. There can be no understanding of the peace conference or the treaties it produced without an understanding of these three men, what they had in common, and the areas where they disagreed. All three represented democracies, although they had taken different routes to power. Lloyd George came out of the coal-mining communities of Wales and had championed the cause of working people against the privileges of the commercial and landed elites. As chancellor of the exchequer in the years before the war, he had helped to usher in many elements of the British welfare state. He had also made many enemies, especially among Britain’s conservatives, for his financial policies, his desire to curb the power of the House of Lords, and his outspoken opposition to Britain’s prosecution of the Boer War in South Africa. His antiwar speech in Birmingham in 1899 caused a riot that led to the deaths p. 31↵of two people and forced Lloyd George himself to escape from the hall disguised as a policeman. His opposition to the Boer War notwithstanding, he was not a pacifist. He did, however, oppose unjust wars fought for the purpose of extending the empire’s reach or for the benefit of financial markets. The outbreak of war in 1914 led him to ask some deep and probing questions about how and why it began, but he never questioned the basic wisdom or necessity of Britain’s engagement in it, however ominous and fateful he thought the war might be. The German invasion of Belgium convinced Lloyd George and many other politicians from his Liberal Party that Britain had no choice but to fight. He argued in a critical speech in August 1914 that his support for Britain’s war against Germany reflected the same ideals that had let him to defend the Boers, namely the immorality of the strong dominating the weak by means of military force. As Britain had unjustly gone to war with the Boers, so, too, had the Germans unjustly invaded Belgium and France. He saw more quickly than most that the war would not end in a few short months and that Great Britain would therefore need to prepare itself for a long, costly conflict. He rejected Prime Minister H. H. Asquith’s 1914 call for “business as usual” and worked instead to bring centralization and modernization into British industry. Despite the enemies he had made over his years of political infighting and accusations that he had more mistresses than principles, Lloyd George took on increasingly important roles during the war. His understanding of the demands of modern war and his background in coal country gave him distinct advantages as his responsibilities over the British wartime economy increased. He became the inaugural minister for munitions in 1915, charged with modernizing weapons manufacturing, and then the secretary of state for war in 1916. Even his critics came to respect the way he reorganized British industry, bolstered the morale of the workforce (despite his calls for limiting the hours British pubs p. 32↵could remain open), and projected his faith in final victory. He showed a willingness to work with groups as diverse as suffragettes and the opposition Conservatives to pursue the shared national interest in the defeat of Germany. By 1918 he was, and at least for a few months longer would remain, a popular and deeply admired leader who came to the Paris Peace Conference able to boast of having a mandate from his people to speak on their behalf. Although the two men were very different people, Lloyd George’s path to the peace conference shared much with that of his French counterpart, Georges Clemenceau. Both were from poor places relatively isolated from the centers of power. Lloyd George hailed from Wales and Clemenceau from the Vendée in western France, a region with a reputation for its unstable political atmosphere. Like Lloyd George, Clemenceau had also made enemies among his country’s conservatives, in Clemenceau’s case for his opposition to the privileges of the wealthy and the Catholic Church. He had been a prime leader of the movement to exonerate the falsely accused Alsatian Jewish officer Alfred Dreyfus, whom the French army had tried to frame for treason in the 1890s. He, too, had a reputation for fierce political infighting and had fought many duels in his younger days. As a journalist, he had used his newspaper to bring down numerous French governments of which he disapproved. His great rival, French president Raymond Poincaré, once said of Clemenceau that he was a man made for catastrophes: if he could not prevent them, he would provoke them. Clemenceau and Lloyd George may have been deeply unpopular with conservatives in their own countries, but they both had solid reputations as patriots. Clemenceau had been the mayor of the Montmartre section of Paris during the Franco-Prussian War and had opposed the peace treaty with Germany that resulted in the surrender of Alsace-Lorraine. As early as September 1914, he had emerged as a vocal and intense critic of the French government for not fighting the war with sufficient ardor and competence. p. 33↵In return the government heavily censored his newspaper, L’Homme Libre (The Free Man). Clemenceau responded by renaming the paper L’Homme Enchaîné (The Man in Chains) and maintaining his criticisms despite pressure from the government. Lloyd George had developed a similar reputation for patriotism. He became known for his speech at Mansion House in 1911 defending the rights and honor of Great Britain on the world stage. The speech came in the midst of a diplomatic row between France and Germany. It pledged British support for France, and Lloyd George’s service during the war further showed that, despite his criticisms of the British establishment, he was as dedicated to the British cause as anyone. Unlike Clemenceau, however, Lloyd George was a member of the British government in 1914. He therefore worked within the system rather than from the outside. Somewhat to the surprise of many of their fellow countrymen, Lloyd George and Clemenceau both rose to head their governments before the war’s end. Lloyd George became prime minister of a coalition government in December 1916, and Clemenceau returned to that job in France (he had been prime minister from 1906 to 1909) in November 1917. Both men advocated fighting a war to the end against Germany. Clemenceau also became the war minister as well as prime minister. When asked for specifics of his policies, he often said simply, “Je fais la guerre” (I make war). Lloyd George solidified political alliances with British conservatives, won over key newspaper barons, and extended Britain’s war in the Middle East as well. Both men also showed a willingness to stand up to their generals and impose their own view of grand strategy, a foreshadowing of the way they isolated their military advisors at the Paris Peace Conference. Neither man showed much deference to the military expertise of the generals, as their predecessors had done. Instead, they often made strategic decisions contrary to the desires of those p. 34↵same generals. Lloyd George took military forces in Belgium and France away from British Expeditionary Forces commander Gen. Sir Douglas Haig, a man he despised and derided. Against the advice of most of Britain’s senior military officers, Lloyd George sent forces later in the war to Italy and to Palestine, hoping to find victory somewhere other than the frustrating western front. In Palestine, at least, he got what he wanted, as British forces seized Jerusalem, setting up both British power in the region and conflicts with the French in the months after the war. He also touched off a furor inside the British army in the spring of 1917 when he temporarily put British forces under the command of the French general Robert Nivelle. That idea proved ill-fated, as Nivelle’s offensive failed miserably, leaving behind tensions between Lloyd George and the generals that never healed. Clemenceau had the benefit of having seen the Franco-Prussian War and having covered the end of the American Civil War as a young reporter. These experiences, plus his natural aversion to the conservatives who ran the army, made him more than willing to challenge his own generals. Clemenceau forced his will on military strategy, kept officers from playing key roles at primarily political bodies like the Supreme War Council, and coined the phrase that war was too important a business to be left to generals. He instinctively understood the essential insight of the Prussian military theorist Karl von Clausewitz that war is at its heart a political act. It therefore needed to have politicians, not generals, directing it. Nevertheless, neither man had made his political name on foreign policy or defense issues. Nor had either one traveled much beyond his own borders on official diplomatic missions. Neither one knew much about the complexities of places like central Europe, the Middle East, or Russia. Clemenceau, however, may have had some important insights into the nature of the United States from his time spent there and from his (ultimately unhappy) marriage to an American woman. He may have understood even better than p. 35↵Woodrow Wilson the significance of the Republican triumph in the 1918 congressional elections. He appears to have grasped with his politician’s sixth sense that the election had fundamentally undermined Wilson’s position. Wilson shared the general ignorance of global affairs with his two European counterparts. He had even remarked to a friend on the eve of his inauguration in 1913 that “it would be an irony of fate if my administration had to deal chiefly with foreign affairs.” He had given little thought to the rest of the world before becoming president, although he had an unshakable belief in American moral superiority that guided his views of the world beyond America’s shores. Although he did not face the risk of his government collapsing as could happen in a European parliamentary system, Wilson was never a popular president. He had won the 1912 election primarily because of a split in the Republican Party, and he won reelection in 1916 by one of the slimmest margins in American history. Wilson had in fact gone to bed the night of the election certain that he had lost. About 2,500 voters in normally Republican California gave Wilson just enough votes to win and thereby avoid the humiliation of becoming only the second incumbent president not to win reelection. Wilson certainly had his enemies, most notable among them the popular former president Theodore Roosevelt, but he could inspire followers as well. Progressive reformers and journalists often saw Wilson in near-messianic terms as the herald of a new age in American history and maybe the world’s history as well. When the moral example of America proved insufficient, Wilson did not shy away from using force, as he did in sending American troops to Mexico, Haiti, and, later, Russia. Hoping to keep America out of the war in Europe, but sharing his countrymen’s general hope for Allied victory, Wilson had played a double game between 1914 and 1917. He called for the American people to be impartial in regard to the war, but he had at the p. 36↵same time defined neutrality in such a way as to allow (or even encourage) American bankers, farmers, and industrialists to profit from the war. For reasons that were both practical and ideological, most American trade went to the Allies. American policy from 1914 to 1917 thus infuriated the Germans, who came to see the United States as a belligerent in all but name. Wilson’s policy also angered the British and French, who believed that the United States shared their general war aims but chose to profit from the war rather than commit itself to the shared goal of defeating German militarism. The tensions in Wilson’s foreign policy reflected his uncertain political position at home. Wilson knew that he would face a serious challenge for reelection in 1916, as the split in the Republican Party had healed. Theodore Roosevelt, the man who had caused the split by forming his own party in 1912, had pledged to support the Republican nominee in 1916, in large part out of his desire to see Wilson beaten. He even considered running for president himself. Some surprising losses by Democrats in the 1914 congressional elections seemed to point to Wilson’s vulnerability. Although the war in Europe was only one factor among many for the American electorate, it put Wilson in an awkward spot, as he had to navigate between the isolationist wing of his Democratic Party, represented by his own secretary of state, William Jennings Bryan, and the increasingly shrill condemnation of his continued policy of neutrality coming from the Republicans. The president’s response to the German sinking of the Lusitania in May 1915, in which 128 Americans were killed, proved to be a turning point for both sets of his critics. Wilson had refused the demands of isolationists to ban Americans from traveling overseas in recognition of the increased risk they now faced and the possibility of a future sinking leading the United States into war. Wilson saw such a move as inconsistent with American honor, a position that led Bryan to resign as secretary of state. On the other p. 37↵hand, Wilson had publicly stated in a speech he gave in Philadelphia that the United States was “too proud to fight,” words that filled his Republican critics with anger and shame and led many of the most prominent among them to end their public support of the administration’s foreign policy and work for his defeat in 1916. Wilson had a hard time finding policies that both upheld the nation’s honor and avoided American entry into a war he knew the United States was in no position to fight. He mostly drew praise for his peaceful resolution of the Lusitania crisis as well as his handling of the 1916 German torpedoing of a civilian ferry ship, the Sussex, which injured several Americans. After the Sussex, Wilson extracted a promise from the Germans to stop unrestricted submarine warfare. The Sussex Pledge allowed Wilson to position himself in 1916 as the candidate of peace and to use the campaign slogan “He Kept Us Out of War,” even though Wilson knew that he could not continue his diplomatic balancing act forever. With each act of German aggression, his strategy of demanding concessions without threatening war would grow less and less effective both at home and abroad. When the Germans resumed unrestricted submarine warfare in February 1917, thereby invalidating the Sussex Pledge, most Americans saw that war with Germany had become inevitable. Wilson still held out hope that he could avoid war as he had done in 1915 and 1916, but the release of the Zimmermann Telegram, in which the Germans proposed an anti-American alliance with Mexico and Japan, severely limited his options. Wilson’s responses to American entry into the war in April 1917 reveal a great deal about his views toward war and the way he wanted to shape the peace that would follow. Much more than Clemenceau or Lloyd George, Wilson believed that wars came from regimes, not peoples. Freely elected governments, he said, did not send their citizens off to war in the modern age except in self-defense. The problem in Germany was not the German people, therefore, but their aristocratic and unrepresentative p. 38↵government. Change the government by deposing the kaiser and instituting true democracy, and the German people could assume their rightful place in Europe. Thus in his declaration-of-war speech he emphasized, “We have no quarrel with the German people. We have no feeling towards them but one of sympathy and friendship. It was not upon their impulse that their Government acted in entering this war.” Neither Clemenceau nor Lloyd George shared Wilson’s version of recent history. While both distrusted the kaiser’s government, they saw other causes at work. Like most British strategists, Lloyd George believed that the traditional European strategic balance of power had failed. One state (in this case Germany, abetted by Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire) had grown too powerful to be contained or deterred by the prewar alliance system that the great powers had so carefully crafted. In the postwar era, he believed, a Europe dominated by a too powerful France could be just as unstable as the prewar era had been. Thus the British had opposed the detachment of the Rhineland from Germany as, in Lloyd George’s words, an Alsace-Lorraine in reverse. For the same reason, the British were reluctant to commit to a permanent alliance with France in the postwar years. Clemenceau laid the blame squarely at the feet of the Germans, a state and a people that had, in his view, been an existential threat to France since its unification in 1871. Fueled by a hyper-nationalist ideology and powered by a highly industrialized economy, Germany had chosen to threaten and bully its neighbors. Only an international coalition working together in a four-year total war could stop it. Clemenceau did not share Wilson’s hope that a democratic government could properly channel the energies of the German people, nor did he put much faith in the Germans accepting their defeat and reforming themselves. He demanded protections from Germany for his native France, which, unlike the United States or Great Britain, still had to live next door to its traditional enemy.p. 39↵ Although there were no socialists among the plenipotentiaries of the great powers, they offered a different opinion on the causes of the war. They tended to believe that the war had been caused by the concentration of wealth and power that resulted from the inherent nature of the capitalist system. The profiteering of arms manufacturers and imperialists had created conflict between the great powers that eventually spilled out into a global war. The Big Three, as Wilson, Lloyd George, and Clemenceau came to be known, successfully kept such ideas out of the conference rooms, but they knew how popular those same ideas were with segments of all of their populations. Each leader’s views about how and why the war had started naturally influenced ideas about the peace. Wilson came to be the leader of an ideology called liberal idealism, or internationalism, p. 40↵that called for the creation of structures above the nation-state. Advocates believed that such a system could resolve disputes before they turned into wars. They also argued that building institutional networks of cooperation (most importantly through global trade) between nation-states would give states incentives to work together instead of seeing the world as a zero-sum game. Wilson thus championed the formation of a League of Nations, an idea that had its origins in the late eighteenth century but had languished until the war seemed to show the need for some supranational body that could help the world avoid future catastrophes. Clemenceau and Lloyd George did not necessarily oppose the formation of an international body, but they did not believe that such an organization could or should replace the role of the nation-state. Clemenceau in particular wanted the League of Nations to act as a kind of permanent international alliance against German resurgence. Neither he nor Lloyd George put much faith in the effectiveness of the League of Nations to fulfill Wilson’s vision, but, knowing how important it was to the president, they used their support for it as a bargaining chip. So, too, did the Italians and Japanese, both of whom occasionally threatened not to join the League unless they obtained some of their key demands in return. Nor could powerful states be expected to cede some of their power to an international group unless they could control its outcomes. The League had as one of its principles that all states would be represented equally regardless of size, even though five of the nine places in the governing League Council would be held by the war’s great victors. Lloyd George, Clemenceau, and Henry Cabot Lodge all thought an egalitarian structure foolish, as it would inevitably dilute their own states’ power. Many Europeans also wanted to keep the Russians and Germans out of the League until they adopted democratic forms of government. But the more states that stayed out of the League, the less power and legitimacy it would have. p. 41The Big Three dominated the Paris Peace Conference, but they were not alone. Italy believed that it deserved a place at the table and significant rewards for its declaration of war against Austria-Hungary in May 1915. Italy’s prime minister, Vittorio Orlando, styled himself the “Premier of Victory,” but his position at the conference was weak. The British and French especially resented Italy for, in their view, auctioning off Italy’s services to both sides before deciding that the Allies could offer them more than the Germans could. Italy’s mediocre performance on the battlefield and its need for massive Allied aid after the collapse of the Italian army at the Battle of Caporetto in October 1917 further undermined the Italian position. Orlando also had severe political and personal limitations. He spoke little English and only halting French but did not like having to rely on translators, so he rarely used them. He was himself a member of the Italian Liberal Party but had to work with the powerful Sidney Sonnino, the foreign minister and a former prime minister. Sonnino was a member of the opposition Historical Right Party, which had major foreign policy disagreements with the Liberals, especially in their demand that Italy annex Dalmatia and Fiume. The Big Three were staunchly opposed to those annexations; thus Orlando found himself in the awkward position of having to balance the obstinacy of his allies with the demands of his own government. He also knew that if Italy did not come out of the conference with tangible gains, the constitutional monarchy itself might not survive an armed challenge from the left or the right. At one point during the conference, the stress led him to break down sobbing in front of his fellow statesmen, underscoring their view of him as an amiable gentleman but a hopelessly weak politician. He walked out of the conference in protest in April and then resigned as prime minister on June 23, just before the signing of the Treaty of Versailles. He did not attend the signing ceremony. Sonnino proved to be even more difficult for the Allies to deal with than Orlando. On the surface, Sonnino might have been the kind p. 42↵of man to get along with the Big Three. He was in fact half Welsh, which might have endeared him to Lloyd George. He was also, like Lloyd George and Clemenceau, an outsider, half Jewish by birth and Protestant by faith in an overwhelmingly Catholic country. But Sonnino shared none of Wilson’s ideals, did not defend Italy’s positions well, and always seemed to be asking for much more than the Big Three thought Italy deserved. They were soon wistful for the days when Orlando represented Italy in Paris. Any Italian statesman would have found himself in a difficult position in Paris. Uncertain of popular support for Italian entry into the war, the government had promised a quick march to Vienna followed by massive gains for Italy in the Trentino, the Adriatic coast, and even parts of the Ottoman Empire. But the war had turned out to be bloody and inconclusive, with a stalemate in the Julian Alps alongside the Isonzo River. The collapse at Caporetto led to the change of government that brought Orlando to power, and it also led to a new military command structure. The Italians ended the war with a major victory over exhausted Austro-Hungarian forces at the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, raising Italian hopes for the peace conference. Such hopes, unrealistic though they were, inspired such Italian demagogues as the poet and aviator Gabriele d’Annunzio and the journalist and war veteran Benito Mussolini. They called for massive expansions of Italian territory and threatened violence against the government if it did not find some way to achieve them. They pledged to oppose with force the proposed creation of a large Slavic state opposite the Adriatic Sea from Italy. Some had begun to talk of a “mutilated victory” and spazio vitale (vital living space). They came to see Britain and France as enemies of Italy for denying Italy its just compensation for its wartime contributions. Although the French and British did not see just how unstable Italian hyper-nationalism would become, Orlando and Sonnino did. They also knew that strong Italian opposition to the creation of Yugoslavia would force them to take a harsh line against it despite the Big p. 43↵Three’s support for it. Orlando refused to meet with the Yugoslav delegates and even went so far as to call them enemies of Italy. Some non-Europeans played key roles as well. Jan Smuts, a former Boer commander, parlayed an unusual political career into a prominent role at the conference. Fearing a German takeover of South Africa in 1914, then seeing a chance for South Africa to conquer German colonial possessions in Africa, Smuts rose by 1917 to a seat on the Imperial War Cabinet, where he became a critical advisor to Lloyd George, despite turning down Lloyd George’s offer to become commander of British forces in the Middle East. Smuts wanted South Africa to take over German Southwest Africa (later Namibia), but he also favored lenient terms against Germany more generally and supported the League of Nations. He eventually became the key advocate of the mandate system by which the British and French took over effective political control of large parts of the former Ottoman Empire. p. 44As a group, the men in positions of power in Paris believed deeply in the superiority of white people, whether in Virginia, Palestine, or Namibia. They occasionally listened politely to the entreaties of people from Africa and Asia but rarely took their opinions or their concerns seriously. They never did grasp how deeply the four murderous years of the war had undermined the ideals of European superiority on which their empires had been constructed. They still believed themselves to be at the top of the evolutionary pyramid and therefore to still deserve the right to shape the destinies of people around the globe, even without seeking their consent. With the possible exception of Woodrow Wilson, they also believed that having suffered deep human and material losses, their societies were entitled to a share of whatever spoils were to be had. The one exception to this general pattern of European feelings of superiority over the rest of the world involved Japan, which had emerged as a serious rival and occasional partner to the Big Three. Since opening to the West in the 1850s, Japan had modernized and developed into a major power. It had defeated China in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–95, Russia in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, and then German forces in China and in the Marshall, Marianas, and Caroline Islands. Thanks to its naval alliance with Great Britain, Japan was also the only non-European state in a formal alliance with a European one. European statesmen were never quite sure whether to read Japan as a looming threat or a potential ally for their own goals of power projection, but by 1919 more of them were coming to the former rather than the latter view. For their part, Japanese leaders knew that the European influence in Asia would likely decline after the war, and they very much wanted to be the power that would fill in the resulting vacuum. Their delegation to Paris was led by Prince Saionji Kinmochi, a seventy-year-old elder statesman and former prime minister who had studied at the Sorbonne and had been a classmate of Georges p. 45↵Clemenceau there. Japanese leaders mistrusted the principles of Woodrow Wilson, seeing right through his noble-sounding ideals to the racist core that underlay them. As one Japanese newspaper wrote, Wilson was an angel in rhetoric but a devil in deed. The Japanese knew that Wilson held Asians to a lower standard of development than he did Europeans. They also blamed Wilson’s promises of national self-determination for the rise in anti-Japanese sentiment in both China and Korea. Hoping to catch Wilson in a trap and expose his hypocrisy, the Japanese delegates came to Paris seeking to force the insertion of a racial equality clause into the final treaty. Either the Allies would agree, and thereby undercut their own rationale for imperialism, or they would refuse and give the Japanese a tremendous public relations victory across Asia, especially inside the European and American colonial empires. The Japanese also came to Paris hoping to increase their influence in the Pacific Rim more generally. The Allies had pledged to give Japan permanent influence or control over any German colonial territories north of the equator that they could capture. Having done its part, Japan expected to be rewarded, not only with those islands, but also with concessions in the indisputably Chinese region of the Shandong Peninsula, controlled by Germany before the war. Shandong loomed as a potential roadblock to everything Wilson wanted to accomplish. Unquestionably Chinese, it might have to be placed under Japanese control in order to assure Japanese participation in Wilson’s cherished League of Nations. But if the Big Four (if one wants to be generous and include Italy’s Orlando) were powerful, they were not omnipotent. They all came from fractious, democratic political systems with many overlapping and contrasting interest groups. Their citizens by no means agreed on what they wanted to see the peace conference accomplish. Many of them had already become deeply disillusioned with the very systems the Big Four represented, and p. 46↵a violent minority of them, from both the left and the right, had begun to plot revolution. The Big Four thus had enormous challenges ahead of them as they sat down in Paris not only to try to resolve the problems of the world but to satisfy the hopes of their own people as well.	6,424	ENGLISH	1
In January 1919, the Supreme Leader of the White Government, Admiral Alexander Kolchak was forced to hand over power to General Anton Deniken when he was held up in his train by the Czech Legion 280 miles from Irkutsk. The Allied commander, General Maurice Janin guaranteed the safe conduct of the Admiral and his carriages were coupled to the train of the 6th Czech Regiment. If he could just reach Lake Baikal, he believed he would be safe because the railway line from there was still controlled by the US and Japanese forces. However, the train took seven days to reach Irkutsk, by which time the Bolsheviks had taken the city and the British and French diplomatic delegations had escaped to the east. On 15th January, his carriages were surrounded by a hundred revolutionary soldiers with machine guns and the Czechs handed the Admiral over to the Red Commissars. That night, Kolchak spent his first night in captivity, although he must have felt he had been a prisoner for much of the previous month. 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The Allied commander, General Maurice Janin guaranteed the safe conduct of the Admiral and his carriages were coupled to the train of the 6th Czech Regiment. If he could just reach Lake Baikal, he believed he would be safe because the railway line from there was still controlled by the US and Japanese forces. However, the train took seven days to reach Irkutsk, by which time the Bolsheviks had taken the city and the British and French diplomatic delegations had escaped to the east. On 15th January, his carriages were surrounded by a hundred revolutionary soldiers with machine guns and the Czechs handed the Admiral over to the Red Commissars. That night, Kolchak spent his first night in captivity, although he must have felt he had been a prisoner for much of the previous month. Admiral Kolchak (fur hat) with Captain Francis McCullough (right) who ran the White Government’s Propaganda in Omsk	253	ENGLISH	1
The plague that raged through Europe in the 14th century changed just about every single thing about medieval society, and indeed, in large measure, the Black Death produced the modern world we live in today. The Plague Comes to Florence, Italy In order to convey the impact of the plague on the medieval world, I want to zoom in as it were to one particular moment in time, and one particular place—Florence, Italy, in late January 1348. If you’re a Florentine in the mid-14th century, things are pretty good. Your society is stable and economically sound. There is complex social and political infrastructure. The city is wealthy because of its extensive trade networks. It’s governed by a more or less representative body of leaders who take it seriously to regulate the safety and well-being of its citizens. This is a transcript from the video series The Black Death: The World’s Most Devastating Plague. Watch it now, on The Great Courses Plus. The city itself is a leading patron of the arts, with some of the greatest artistic minds the world has ever known commissioned by city fathers to beautify public spaces and buildings like the guildhall. The news in Florence in late January 1348 would have been preoccupied with some horrific stories coming out of Sicily—some mystery illness was apparently wreaking havoc there, but that was far away from daily life in happy, prosperous Florence. …unlike other illnesses that this city had experienced over the centuries of its history, this outbreak didn’t burn itself out or slow down—it got worse And then—a few people got sick. No real cause for alarm. But by mid-February, more and more people were getting very sick and dying. But unlike other illnesses that this city had experienced over the centuries of its history, this outbreak didn’t burn itself out or slow down—it got worse. People dropped dead in the streets, or died in their houses, and no one knew they had died because there was no one left alive to notice. Beautiful public spaces that in mid-January had been places to meet friends and have a conversation had become open, stinking mass graves by March. Practically overnight, Florence had gone from being a jewel of a city to a charnel house. And the experience of Florence was going to be far from unique during the years the Black Death swept through the medieval world. Learn more about the enormity of the Black Death’s impact on the medieval world The Black Death In Context One thing about studying the Middle Ages is that at once, it feels utterly foreign and alien. And then, in the next moment, a character in a medieval story or the writer of a chronicle of the Middle Ages says or does something that is completely recognizable and familiar. It reminds us that people then and now are more alike than not, even if our settings and contexts are radically different. But when it comes to the Black Death, it often becomes difficult to see those connections and similarities, because the horror of that experience was unlike anything that had ever occurred in living memory. People’s reactions were understandably coming from a place of sheer terror and despair. Consider this eyewitness account of Giovanni Boccaccio, writer of the Decameron, who described how every morning in the towns and cities of Italy, the corpses of those who had died in the night would be placed out into the street, and eventually funeral biers—sometimes nothing more than a rough board—would go through the town to collect them: It was by no means rare for more than one of these biers to be seen with two or three bodies upon it at a time. Many were seen to contain a husband and wife, two or three brothers and sisters, a father and son, and times without number it happened that two priests would be on their way to bury someone, only to find bearers carrying three or four additional biers would fall in behind them. Such was the multitude of corpses that there was not sufficient consecrated ground for them to be buried in, so when all the graves were full, huge trenches were excavated in the churchyards, into which new arrivals were placed in their hundreds, stowed tier upon tier like ships’ cargo, each layer of corpses being covered over with a thin layer of soil till the trench was filled to the top. The End of History, The End of The World To many it seemed as if the end of the world was surely at hand; indeed, one chronicler, leaving a blank space at the end of his history, noted that he did so in case anyone should be left alive who might wish to make a record of events that had transpired. It’s clear that leaving this space was a desperate, defiant action of optimism, because it didn’t seem likely that anyone would survive. For about a decade in the middle of the 14th century in Europe, it seemed like the world was coming to an end. A horrible plague made its way westward, killing a third to a half of the population of the medieval world. Eyewitness accounts describe bodies lying in the streets and mass graves in churchyards, so full and so foul that people who needed to walk past them held cloths dipped in something strong smelling—like a concoction of herbs or sweet-smelling flowers—in front of their noses. The disease was a mystery, seeming to exist in a confusing variety of permutations. Some people developed excruciatingly painful swollen lymph nodes—buboes—at the groin and armpits. Most of these people died, but some, about 15 percent–18 percent, recovered. Others developed fevers, rashes, and blisters, and died in agony, but usually very shortly after those symptoms appeared. Still others seemed to suffer from something in the lungs, tubercular in nature, and they died after a sometimes lengthy and always miserable illness. In some cases, the disease moved so quickly that it was reported that some people could be dancing in the morning and dead by noon. Most scholars now believe that as awful as all the surviving evidence suggests the Black Death was, in reality, it was probably even worse. If it sounds terrible—well, it was. But here’s the thing. Most scholars now believe that as awful as all the surviving evidence suggests the Black Death was, in reality, it was probably even worse. While overall the death toll was about half the population, in some places it was probably a whole village or an entire community. Most of those who witnessed the horrors of the plague either died or had no means to record their observations— only 10 percent to 15 percent of the population were literate in the Middle Ages. Most of the actions of those who lived through the plague—the kindnesses and cruelties neighbors and families showed to each other—the majority of those stories are lost to time and memory.	<urn:uuid:0dfd5d22-67ab-4226-8491-1c6e44fabf0f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thegreatcoursesdaily.com/black-death-plague-begins/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00281.warc.gz	en	0.982252	1,424	3.609375	4	[ -0.19398139417171478, 0.18173149228096008, 0.40935832262039185, 0.3445325493812561, 0.1638386994600296, -0.20597079396247864, 0.1900848150253296, 0.21246623992919922, -0.026906607672572136, -0.11640118062496185, -0.1644563525915146, -0.08658871799707413, 0.08982955664396286, 0.3334495425224304, -0.584210991859436, -0.3167964220046997, -0.06970382481813431, 0.030896348878741264, -0.5237516760826111, 0.3402186930179596, -0.30292028188705444, -0.0025315347593277693, -0.019829988479614258, 0.10315673053264618, 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The Plague Comes to Florence, Italy In order to convey the impact of the plague on the medieval world, I want to zoom in as it were to one particular moment in time, and one particular place—Florence, Italy, in late January 1348. If you’re a Florentine in the mid-14th century, things are pretty good. Your society is stable and economically sound. There is complex social and political infrastructure. The city is wealthy because of its extensive trade networks. It’s governed by a more or less representative body of leaders who take it seriously to regulate the safety and well-being of its citizens. This is a transcript from the video series The Black Death: The World’s Most Devastating Plague. Watch it now, on The Great Courses Plus. The city itself is a leading patron of the arts, with some of the greatest artistic minds the world has ever known commissioned by city fathers to beautify public spaces and buildings like the guildhall. The news in Florence in late January 1348 would have been preoccupied with some horrific stories coming out of Sicily—some mystery illness was apparently wreaking havoc there, but that was far away from daily life in happy, prosperous Florence. …unlike other illnesses that this city had experienced over the centuries of its history, this outbreak didn’t burn itself out or slow down—it got worse And then—a few people got sick. No real cause for alarm. But by mid-February, more and more people were getting very sick and dying. But unlike other illnesses that this city had experienced over the centuries of its history, this outbreak didn’t burn itself out or slow down—it got worse. People dropped dead in the streets, or died in their houses, and no one knew they had died because there was no one left alive to notice. Beautiful public spaces that in mid-January had been places to meet friends and have a conversation had become open, stinking mass graves by March. Practically overnight, Florence had gone from being a jewel of a city to a charnel house. And the experience of Florence was going to be far from unique during the years the Black Death swept through the medieval world. Learn more about the enormity of the Black Death’s impact on the medieval world The Black Death In Context One thing about studying the Middle Ages is that at once, it feels utterly foreign and alien. And then, in the next moment, a character in a medieval story or the writer of a chronicle of the Middle Ages says or does something that is completely recognizable and familiar. It reminds us that people then and now are more alike than not, even if our settings and contexts are radically different. But when it comes to the Black Death, it often becomes difficult to see those connections and similarities, because the horror of that experience was unlike anything that had ever occurred in living memory. People’s reactions were understandably coming from a place of sheer terror and despair. Consider this eyewitness account of Giovanni Boccaccio, writer of the Decameron, who described how every morning in the towns and cities of Italy, the corpses of those who had died in the night would be placed out into the street, and eventually funeral biers—sometimes nothing more than a rough board—would go through the town to collect them: It was by no means rare for more than one of these biers to be seen with two or three bodies upon it at a time. Many were seen to contain a husband and wife, two or three brothers and sisters, a father and son, and times without number it happened that two priests would be on their way to bury someone, only to find bearers carrying three or four additional biers would fall in behind them. Such was the multitude of corpses that there was not sufficient consecrated ground for them to be buried in, so when all the graves were full, huge trenches were excavated in the churchyards, into which new arrivals were placed in their hundreds, stowed tier upon tier like ships’ cargo, each layer of corpses being covered over with a thin layer of soil till the trench was filled to the top. The End of History, The End of The World To many it seemed as if the end of the world was surely at hand; indeed, one chronicler, leaving a blank space at the end of his history, noted that he did so in case anyone should be left alive who might wish to make a record of events that had transpired. It’s clear that leaving this space was a desperate, defiant action of optimism, because it didn’t seem likely that anyone would survive. For about a decade in the middle of the 14th century in Europe, it seemed like the world was coming to an end. A horrible plague made its way westward, killing a third to a half of the population of the medieval world. Eyewitness accounts describe bodies lying in the streets and mass graves in churchyards, so full and so foul that people who needed to walk past them held cloths dipped in something strong smelling—like a concoction of herbs or sweet-smelling flowers—in front of their noses. The disease was a mystery, seeming to exist in a confusing variety of permutations. Some people developed excruciatingly painful swollen lymph nodes—buboes—at the groin and armpits. Most of these people died, but some, about 15 percent–18 percent, recovered. Others developed fevers, rashes, and blisters, and died in agony, but usually very shortly after those symptoms appeared. Still others seemed to suffer from something in the lungs, tubercular in nature, and they died after a sometimes lengthy and always miserable illness. In some cases, the disease moved so quickly that it was reported that some people could be dancing in the morning and dead by noon. Most scholars now believe that as awful as all the surviving evidence suggests the Black Death was, in reality, it was probably even worse. If it sounds terrible—well, it was. But here’s the thing. Most scholars now believe that as awful as all the surviving evidence suggests the Black Death was, in reality, it was probably even worse. While overall the death toll was about half the population, in some places it was probably a whole village or an entire community. Most of those who witnessed the horrors of the plague either died or had no means to record their observations— only 10 percent to 15 percent of the population were literate in the Middle Ages. Most of the actions of those who lived through the plague—the kindnesses and cruelties neighbors and families showed to each other—the majority of those stories are lost to time and memory.	1,403	ENGLISH	1
Historians say we know a lot more about St. Brigid than we have facts, a polite way of saying that legends swirl about Ireland’s most celebrated woman. But even legends may have cores of truth. And some miracle stories are not legends at all, but true accounts of God’s interventions. Brigid was the daughter of a slave woman and a chieftain, who liberated her at the urging of his overlord. As a girl she sensed a call to become a nun, and St. Mel, bishop of Armagh, received her vows. Before Brigid, consecrated virgins lived at home with their families. But the saint, imitating Patrick, began to assemble nuns in communities, a historic move which enriched the church in Ireland. In 471, Brigid founded a monastery for both women and men at Kildare. This was the first convent in Ireland, and Brigid was the abbess. Under her leadership Kildare became a center of learning and spirituality. Her school of art fashioned both lovely utensils for worship and beautifully illustrated manuscripts. Again following Patrick’s model, Brigid used Kildare as a base and built convents throughout the island. Brigid’s hallmark was uninhibited, generous giving to anyone in need. Many of the saint’s earliest miracles seem to have rescued her from punishment for having given something to the poor that was intended for someone else. For example, once as a child she gave a piece of bacon to a dog, and was glad to find it replaced when she was about to be disciplined. Brigid exhibited this unbounded charity all her life, giving away valuables, clothing, food—anything close by—to anyone who asked. One of the most appealing things told of Brigid is her contemporaries’ belief that there was peace in her blessing. 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But even legends may have cores of truth. And some miracle stories are not legends at all, but true accounts of God’s interventions. Brigid was the daughter of a slave woman and a chieftain, who liberated her at the urging of his overlord. As a girl she sensed a call to become a nun, and St. Mel, bishop of Armagh, received her vows. Before Brigid, consecrated virgins lived at home with their families. But the saint, imitating Patrick, began to assemble nuns in communities, a historic move which enriched the church in Ireland. In 471, Brigid founded a monastery for both women and men at Kildare. This was the first convent in Ireland, and Brigid was the abbess. Under her leadership Kildare became a center of learning and spirituality. Her school of art fashioned both lovely utensils for worship and beautifully illustrated manuscripts. Again following Patrick’s model, Brigid used Kildare as a base and built convents throughout the island. Brigid’s hallmark was uninhibited, generous giving to anyone in need. Many of the saint’s earliest miracles seem to have rescued her from punishment for having given something to the poor that was intended for someone else. For example, once as a child she gave a piece of bacon to a dog, and was glad to find it replaced when she was about to be disciplined. Brigid exhibited this unbounded charity all her life, giving away valuables, clothing, food—anything close by—to anyone who asked. One of the most appealing things told of Brigid is her contemporaries’ belief that there was peace in her blessing. Not merely did contentiousness die out in her presence, but just as by the touch of her hand she healed leprosy, so by her very will for peace she healed strife and laid antiseptics on the suppurating bitterness that foments it.	426	ENGLISH	1
Sunday, August 4th, is Raoul Wallenberg Day. Raoul Gustaf Wallenberg was a Swedish architect, businessman, and diplomat. Born on August 4, 1912, in Lidingö, Sweden, we remember and honor him for saving tens of thousands of Jews in Nazi-occupied Hungary toward the end of World War II. Raoul Wallenberg was the grandson of Gustav Wallenberg who served as diplomat and envoy to Tokyo, Istanbul, and Sofia. Raoul’s father died of cancer three months before Raoul was born, and his maternal grandmother died three months after his birth. Raoul studied in Paris for a year before heading to the University of Michigan to study architecture. Although the family was well-heeled, he worked at odd jobs such as rickshaw handler at Chicago’s Century of Progress at the 1933-34 World’s Fair. He also hitchhiked the U.S., telling his grandfather he felt that hitchhiking provided training in diplomacy and tact. Wallenberg was proudly 1/16 Jewish (his maternal grandmother’s grandfather Michael Benedicks was Jewish and moved to Stockholm in 1780). Upon graduation he returned in 1935 to Sweden, but found his degree did not qualify him to practice there as an architect. His grandfather sent him to Cape Town, where he sold building materials for a Swedish firm. After six months, his grandfather found him a job at a Dutch bank in Haifa. In Palestine he first met Jews who had escaped fascism. Wallenberg was introduced to Koloman Lauer, a Hungarian Jew, who would soon be restricted in travel after the rise of Hitler. Wallenberg hired on in Lauer’s firm, filled in for Lauer internationally, and soon became a joint owner and international director of the Mid-European Trading Company. He traveled France and Germany (Nazi controlled countries at the time) and learned how the German government functioned. In 1944, the U.S. War Refugee Board (created to save Jews from Nazis) sent to Sweden to find a Swedish delegate to send to Hungary. The conference of prominent Jews included Lauer, who suggested Wallenberg. Though he was young and relatively inexperienced, they finally approved his appointment. Wallenberg was emphatic about having carte blanche in his dealings, which request reached the highest levels and the Swedish prime minister and king both ultimately approved the demands. By July 1944, the Germans had already deported more than 400,000 Jews from Hungary on 148 freight trains since May. That left 230,000 of a population once numbering 700,000. Both the German Nazis and the Hungarian Fascists were after Jews who were seeking any means possible of escape. Wallenberg started issuing protective papers, making them flashy, colorful, and ultra-official-looking, to protect some 4,500 persons, and he also protectively employed Jews in his offices. It was not, however, clear sailing. Upping his game by building 15,000 “Swedish houses” to secretly house Jews, by example he led diplomats from other countries also to provide protection. On January 17, 1945, Budapest was under siege by the Red Army, and Wallenberg was detained by Russian counterintelligence on suspicion of espionage. He disappeared under mysterious circumstances, years later to be reported dead as of July 17, 1947, while imprisoned by the KGB in Moscow, though there is some evidence he was still alive later. In 1981, U.S. Congressman Tom Lantos, saved by Wallenberg, sponsored a bill making him an honorary citizen of the United States, the second person ever to receive that honor (first was Winston Churchill). He is also an honorary citizen of Canada, Hungary, Australia, and Israel. Israel has designated Wallenberg one of the Righteous Among Nations. Raoul Wallenberg was probably executed, though Russian claims remain unsubstantiated and his fate remains unknown.	<urn:uuid:ecde9db3-b488-41c1-a136-eae9c3bd51c5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://bethshalompgh.org/who-was-raoul-wallenberg-originally-published-august-2-3-2019/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00189.warc.gz	en	0.982959	798	3.5625	4	[ 0.25038203597068787, 0.7007523775100708, -0.11440999805927277, 0.2891879081726074, 0.18954655528068542, 0.33974772691726685, -0.15237143635749817, 0.2533189058303833, -0.09315360337495804, -0.08572204411029816, 0.08120927959680557, -0.10068964213132858, 0.14950938522815704, 0.31270283460617065, 0.1814938187599182, 0.4765426516532898, -0.43269282579421997, 0.2908354103565216, -0.6029983758926392, 0.23029246926307678, 0.2691102623939514, -0.709847092628479, 0.25776898860931396, -0.6361795663833618, 0.3293859362602234, 0.49159055948257446, 0.29483044147491455, 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Raoul Gustaf Wallenberg was a Swedish architect, businessman, and diplomat. Born on August 4, 1912, in Lidingö, Sweden, we remember and honor him for saving tens of thousands of Jews in Nazi-occupied Hungary toward the end of World War II. Raoul Wallenberg was the grandson of Gustav Wallenberg who served as diplomat and envoy to Tokyo, Istanbul, and Sofia. Raoul’s father died of cancer three months before Raoul was born, and his maternal grandmother died three months after his birth. Raoul studied in Paris for a year before heading to the University of Michigan to study architecture. Although the family was well-heeled, he worked at odd jobs such as rickshaw handler at Chicago’s Century of Progress at the 1933-34 World’s Fair. He also hitchhiked the U.S., telling his grandfather he felt that hitchhiking provided training in diplomacy and tact. Wallenberg was proudly 1/16 Jewish (his maternal grandmother’s grandfather Michael Benedicks was Jewish and moved to Stockholm in 1780). Upon graduation he returned in 1935 to Sweden, but found his degree did not qualify him to practice there as an architect. His grandfather sent him to Cape Town, where he sold building materials for a Swedish firm. After six months, his grandfather found him a job at a Dutch bank in Haifa. In Palestine he first met Jews who had escaped fascism. Wallenberg was introduced to Koloman Lauer, a Hungarian Jew, who would soon be restricted in travel after the rise of Hitler. Wallenberg hired on in Lauer’s firm, filled in for Lauer internationally, and soon became a joint owner and international director of the Mid-European Trading Company. He traveled France and Germany (Nazi controlled countries at the time) and learned how the German government functioned. In 1944, the U.S. War Refugee Board (created to save Jews from Nazis) sent to Sweden to find a Swedish delegate to send to Hungary. The conference of prominent Jews included Lauer, who suggested Wallenberg. Though he was young and relatively inexperienced, they finally approved his appointment. Wallenberg was emphatic about having carte blanche in his dealings, which request reached the highest levels and the Swedish prime minister and king both ultimately approved the demands. By July 1944, the Germans had already deported more than 400,000 Jews from Hungary on 148 freight trains since May. That left 230,000 of a population once numbering 700,000. Both the German Nazis and the Hungarian Fascists were after Jews who were seeking any means possible of escape. Wallenberg started issuing protective papers, making them flashy, colorful, and ultra-official-looking, to protect some 4,500 persons, and he also protectively employed Jews in his offices. It was not, however, clear sailing. Upping his game by building 15,000 “Swedish houses” to secretly house Jews, by example he led diplomats from other countries also to provide protection. On January 17, 1945, Budapest was under siege by the Red Army, and Wallenberg was detained by Russian counterintelligence on suspicion of espionage. He disappeared under mysterious circumstances, years later to be reported dead as of July 17, 1947, while imprisoned by the KGB in Moscow, though there is some evidence he was still alive later. In 1981, U.S. Congressman Tom Lantos, saved by Wallenberg, sponsored a bill making him an honorary citizen of the United States, the second person ever to receive that honor (first was Winston Churchill). He is also an honorary citizen of Canada, Hungary, Australia, and Israel. Israel has designated Wallenberg one of the Righteous Among Nations. Raoul Wallenberg was probably executed, though Russian claims remain unsubstantiated and his fate remains unknown.	841	ENGLISH	1
The Great Fire of London In 1666, a huge fire that started in a tiny bakery burned down most of London. The fire was so big that it was called the Great Fire of London. The fire lasted four days, and burned down over 13,000 homes. There are a lot of reasons why the fire was so large, mostly to do with the way houses were built – a lot of them were made from wood, and were very close together. Top 10 facts - The Great Fire of London happened between 2-5 September in 1666. - The fire began in a bakery in Pudding Lane. - Before the fire began, there had been a drought in London that lasted for 10 months, so the city was very dry. - In 1666, lots of people had houses made from wood and straw which burned easily. Houses were also built very close together. - We know what happened during the fire because people back then wrote about it in letters and newspapers – for instance, Samuel Pepys wrote about it in his diary. - Artists who were alive in 1666 painted pictures of the fire afterwards, so we know what it would have looked like if we’d been there too. - To fight fires during this time, people would have used leather buckets, metal hooks and water squirts. - People whose homes had burned down lived in tents in the fields around London while buildings were rebuilt. - When houses were rebuilt, a lot of them were made in bricks instead of wood, and they weren’t built so close together. - Sir Christopher Wren designed a monument to remember the Great Fire of London, which still stands today. The Great FireTimeline - 2 September 1666A fire broke out in a bakery on Pudding Lane in London a little after midnight, and eventually spread across most of the city - 6 September 1666The very last fire was extinguished early in the morning by a crew led by Samuel Pepys - 25 September, 1666A Commons Committee was set up to look into what caused the fire - 10 October 1666A day of fasting was held to commemorate the fire, and collections were taken up to raise money to help poor people who had lost their homes - 27 October 1666Robert Hubert was hanged at Tyburn for starting the fire – he confessed that he did this, but it later turned out that he was innocent and that the fire was an accident - 22 January 1667The Commons Committee wrote a report about the fire, and the King’s Council decided that the fire was an accident - 1668New fire prevention regulations for London were approved by Parliament - 1671Work began on the monument to the Great Fire of London - 1677The monument to the Great Fire of London was finished - 1680Nicholas Barbon set up the first fire insurance company, the Fire Office Did you know? - The huge fire began early in the morning in a tiny bakery on Pudding Lane owned by a man called Thomas Farriner. He’d forgotten to put out the fire in his oven the night before. - Samuel Pepys was worried that the fire was becoming too large, and asked King Charles II for help. - Lots of people went to St. Paul’s Cathedral to escape from the fire because it was made from stone – stone does not burn. But some of the roof was made of wood, so this didn’t turn out to be a very good plan! - The fire burnt down a lot of buildings – over 13,000 houses, 87 churches and even St. Paul’s Cathedral! - Around 70,000 people lost their homes in the fire. These people had to set up tends in the fields around London so they had a place to stay. - Houses burned so easily because they were made from wood and straw. Plus, they were built close together along narrow streets, so the fire was able to move around easily and quickly. - In March 1667, Samuel Pepys wrote that he could still see some cellars that were smoking from the fire – six months after it was put out! The Great Fire of London gallery: - The top of the monument to the Great Fire of London - Monument to the Great Fire of London - A painting of the great fire of London by an unknown artist; the Tower of London is shown on the right - A painting of the Great Fire of London by an unknown artist around 1670 shows Ludgate, the westernmost gate of the London wall - A drawing of St. Paul’s Cathedral on fire - A picture of firehooks, which were used in the 17th century to pull down burning buildings in an effort to contain fires - John Evelyn - Samuel Pepys - King Charles II - Sir Christopher Wren - The street sign for Pudding Lane, where the fire began - A plaque marking where the fire began on Pudding Lane - A piece of charred wood from the Great Fire of London - Remains of a leather firebucket believed to have been used to fight the Great Fire of London - A fire hook - A water squirt - What wooden houses in the 1660s looked like - A typical baker’s oven from the 1660s Thomas Farriner’s family was trapped upstairs in their house when the fire broke out, and they had to escape through a window into the house next door. Their maid was too scared to jump, and died in the fire. People didn’t have large fire hoses in the 1660s – they would have carried water in leather buckets, squirted water through a big syringe (like a squirt gun), and pulled down burning buildings with long metal hooks. There was a big argument about how to fight the Great Fire. The fire fighters wanted to tear down houses that might get burned so the fire wouldn’t spread so quickly, but the Lord Mayor of London disagreed. In the end, King Charles II had to ask for the houses to be pulled down, but by then the fire had already grown very big. Because the fire destroyed so much, some people thought that someone meant to start it, not that it was an accident in a bakery. It is recorded that only six people died in the fire, but this may not be true – sometimes when poor people died their deaths weren’t recorded. The houses that were rebuilt were made from bricks instead of wood. The new streets were also designed to be wider, and sewers were installed so the city was more sanitary. When the houses and shops that had been destroyed in the fire were being rebuilt, people thought it would also be a good idea to build a monument to remember the Great Fire of London. It was designed by Sir Christopher Wren and took six years to build – it is 61 metres high, which also the same distance between where it stands and site in Pudding Lane where the fire began. It has a bronze sculpture on the top to look like flames. The first proper London Fire Brigade was created in 1866, 200 years after the Great Fire. Names to know: Sir Christopher Wren (1632-1723) – Christopher Wren was a famous architect who designed St. Paul’s Cathedral. He had some ideas for how London could be rebuilt after the Great Fire, but the plans were rejected. Instead, he designed a monument to the Great Fire near where it began on Pudding Lane. Samuel Pepys (1633-1703) – Samuel Pepys is most famous for keeping a diary for most of the 1660s, so he wrote a lot about the Great Fire in 1666. He also played an important part in helping to fight the fire by warning King Charles II that more needed to be done on the day the fire broke out (the King himself, and the Duke of York, took charge). King Charles II (1630-1685) – King Charles II ruled from 1660-1685, and was king during the Great Fire of London. He helped the fire fighters, gave rewards to people who tried to stop the fire, and helped people who were hungry and homeless after the fire was over. James, Duke of York (1633-1701) – The Lord High Admiral of England. Along with King Charles II, James took charge of the fire fighting efforts and helped to end the Great Fire. James’ guards acted as policemen to keep people and shops safe during the fire. John Evelyn (1620-1706) – John Evelyn warned King Charles II in 1661 that the way houses in London were built would mean that a fire would be a disaster. When the Great Fire happened in 1666, he wrote about it in his diary – he walked around the city on 7 September and wrote about how people who had lost their homes were camping in the fields, and that the ground and charred wood was still so hot that holes burned in his shoes. Thomas Farriner (1616-1670) – Thomas Farriner was a baker and owned the shop were the first fire broke out on 2 September 1666 that eventually led to most of London burning down. He was a baker to King Charles II. Just for fun... - An interactive story from the Museum of London mixes facts about the fire with multiple-choice questions to answer along the way - Great Fire 1666: A Minecraft Experience – explore Minecraft maps to find hidden objects, burn London, fight the fire and rebuild the city! - Complete a CBBC Newsround Great Fire of London quiz - On 4 September 2016 a wooden replica of the 1666 city was set ablaze on the Thames to mark the 350th anniversary of the Great Fire - See London before and after 1666 in an animation of the Great Fire - Watch the Horrible Histories Grisly Great Fire of London Special - Read The Great Fire of London poem for kids by Paul Perro - Explore the Great Fire of London through dance and movement activities - Take the Grisly Great Fire of London Horrible Histories quiz Find out more about the Great Fire: - The Museum of London has a whole website dedicated to the Great Fire and it's full of beautiful animations and facts to explore - A children's introduction to the Great Fire and Samuel Pepys from DKfindout! - Listen to three BBC School Radio audio clips about the Great Fire of London: before the Fire, nursery rhymes based on the Fire and rebuilding London after the Fire - What was the Great Fire of London? Read CBBC's newsround report - The Great Fire explained by the London Fire Brigade - Read about the Great Fire of London in numbers - Watch a video showing what London streets looked like in 1666 - See a map of London showing how the Great Fire spread - Horrible Histories author Terry Deary busts Great Fire myths - Read kids' historical fiction about the Great Fire - Examine the evidence to find out more about the Great Fire: look at some of the famous documents connected with the Great Fire of London and find out how London changed as a result of the Fire - Find out more about Samuel Pepys and the Great Fire of London - See Great Fire-related items like the water buckets used to fight the fire - The story of the Great Fire of London: listen to a BBC Schools Radio programme Children's books about the Great Fire of London See for yourself - Visit the monument to the Great Fire of London near Monument tube station in London. There are stairs in the middle of the column that you can walk up, meaning you can see far across the city when you get to the top. - You can also see another memorial to the Great Fire of London, the Golden Boy of Pye Corner in Smithfield, which marks the spot where the fire stopped. - The Museum of London has items from the Great Fire on general display. - Follow a self-guided tour of the destruction left by the Great Fire of London - A multi-sensory experience about the Great Fire of London is part of the tour at the London Dungeon.	<urn:uuid:6a397e0e-9629-414b-a5c7-e108c3b12c4c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.theschoolrun.com/homework-help/great-fire-london	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00431.warc.gz	en	0.980537	2,537	3.578125	4	[ 0.1328718662261963, 0.3409910202026367, 0.4269469380378723, -0.35327795147895813, 0.2136632353067398, 0.17339760065078735, 0.2551855742931366, -0.08275844901800156, 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0.17117640376091003 ]	2	The Great Fire of London In 1666, a huge fire that started in a tiny bakery burned down most of London. The fire was so big that it was called the Great Fire of London. The fire lasted four days, and burned down over 13,000 homes. There are a lot of reasons why the fire was so large, mostly to do with the way houses were built – a lot of them were made from wood, and were very close together. Top 10 facts - The Great Fire of London happened between 2-5 September in 1666. - The fire began in a bakery in Pudding Lane. - Before the fire began, there had been a drought in London that lasted for 10 months, so the city was very dry. - In 1666, lots of people had houses made from wood and straw which burned easily. Houses were also built very close together. - We know what happened during the fire because people back then wrote about it in letters and newspapers – for instance, Samuel Pepys wrote about it in his diary. - Artists who were alive in 1666 painted pictures of the fire afterwards, so we know what it would have looked like if we’d been there too. - To fight fires during this time, people would have used leather buckets, metal hooks and water squirts. - People whose homes had burned down lived in tents in the fields around London while buildings were rebuilt. - When houses were rebuilt, a lot of them were made in bricks instead of wood, and they weren’t built so close together. - Sir Christopher Wren designed a monument to remember the Great Fire of London, which still stands today. The Great FireTimeline - 2 September 1666A fire broke out in a bakery on Pudding Lane in London a little after midnight, and eventually spread across most of the city - 6 September 1666The very last fire was extinguished early in the morning by a crew led by Samuel Pepys - 25 September, 1666A Commons Committee was set up to look into what caused the fire - 10 October 1666A day of fasting was held to commemorate the fire, and collections were taken up to raise money to help poor people who had lost their homes - 27 October 1666Robert Hubert was hanged at Tyburn for starting the fire – he confessed that he did this, but it later turned out that he was innocent and that the fire was an accident - 22 January 1667The Commons Committee wrote a report about the fire, and the King’s Council decided that the fire was an accident - 1668New fire prevention regulations for London were approved by Parliament - 1671Work began on the monument to the Great Fire of London - 1677The monument to the Great Fire of London was finished - 1680Nicholas Barbon set up the first fire insurance company, the Fire Office Did you know? - The huge fire began early in the morning in a tiny bakery on Pudding Lane owned by a man called Thomas Farriner. He’d forgotten to put out the fire in his oven the night before. - Samuel Pepys was worried that the fire was becoming too large, and asked King Charles II for help. - Lots of people went to St. Paul’s Cathedral to escape from the fire because it was made from stone – stone does not burn. But some of the roof was made of wood, so this didn’t turn out to be a very good plan! - The fire burnt down a lot of buildings – over 13,000 houses, 87 churches and even St. Paul’s Cathedral! - Around 70,000 people lost their homes in the fire. These people had to set up tends in the fields around London so they had a place to stay. - Houses burned so easily because they were made from wood and straw. Plus, they were built close together along narrow streets, so the fire was able to move around easily and quickly. - In March 1667, Samuel Pepys wrote that he could still see some cellars that were smoking from the fire – six months after it was put out! The Great Fire of London gallery: - The top of the monument to the Great Fire of London - Monument to the Great Fire of London - A painting of the great fire of London by an unknown artist; the Tower of London is shown on the right - A painting of the Great Fire of London by an unknown artist around 1670 shows Ludgate, the westernmost gate of the London wall - A drawing of St. Paul’s Cathedral on fire - A picture of firehooks, which were used in the 17th century to pull down burning buildings in an effort to contain fires - John Evelyn - Samuel Pepys - King Charles II - Sir Christopher Wren - The street sign for Pudding Lane, where the fire began - A plaque marking where the fire began on Pudding Lane - A piece of charred wood from the Great Fire of London - Remains of a leather firebucket believed to have been used to fight the Great Fire of London - A fire hook - A water squirt - What wooden houses in the 1660s looked like - A typical baker’s oven from the 1660s Thomas Farriner’s family was trapped upstairs in their house when the fire broke out, and they had to escape through a window into the house next door. Their maid was too scared to jump, and died in the fire. People didn’t have large fire hoses in the 1660s – they would have carried water in leather buckets, squirted water through a big syringe (like a squirt gun), and pulled down burning buildings with long metal hooks. There was a big argument about how to fight the Great Fire. The fire fighters wanted to tear down houses that might get burned so the fire wouldn’t spread so quickly, but the Lord Mayor of London disagreed. In the end, King Charles II had to ask for the houses to be pulled down, but by then the fire had already grown very big. Because the fire destroyed so much, some people thought that someone meant to start it, not that it was an accident in a bakery. It is recorded that only six people died in the fire, but this may not be true – sometimes when poor people died their deaths weren’t recorded. The houses that were rebuilt were made from bricks instead of wood. The new streets were also designed to be wider, and sewers were installed so the city was more sanitary. When the houses and shops that had been destroyed in the fire were being rebuilt, people thought it would also be a good idea to build a monument to remember the Great Fire of London. It was designed by Sir Christopher Wren and took six years to build – it is 61 metres high, which also the same distance between where it stands and site in Pudding Lane where the fire began. It has a bronze sculpture on the top to look like flames. The first proper London Fire Brigade was created in 1866, 200 years after the Great Fire. Names to know: Sir Christopher Wren (1632-1723) – Christopher Wren was a famous architect who designed St. Paul’s Cathedral. He had some ideas for how London could be rebuilt after the Great Fire, but the plans were rejected. Instead, he designed a monument to the Great Fire near where it began on Pudding Lane. Samuel Pepys (1633-1703) – Samuel Pepys is most famous for keeping a diary for most of the 1660s, so he wrote a lot about the Great Fire in 1666. He also played an important part in helping to fight the fire by warning King Charles II that more needed to be done on the day the fire broke out (the King himself, and the Duke of York, took charge). King Charles II (1630-1685) – King Charles II ruled from 1660-1685, and was king during the Great Fire of London. He helped the fire fighters, gave rewards to people who tried to stop the fire, and helped people who were hungry and homeless after the fire was over. James, Duke of York (1633-1701) – The Lord High Admiral of England. Along with King Charles II, James took charge of the fire fighting efforts and helped to end the Great Fire. James’ guards acted as policemen to keep people and shops safe during the fire. John Evelyn (1620-1706) – John Evelyn warned King Charles II in 1661 that the way houses in London were built would mean that a fire would be a disaster. When the Great Fire happened in 1666, he wrote about it in his diary – he walked around the city on 7 September and wrote about how people who had lost their homes were camping in the fields, and that the ground and charred wood was still so hot that holes burned in his shoes. Thomas Farriner (1616-1670) – Thomas Farriner was a baker and owned the shop were the first fire broke out on 2 September 1666 that eventually led to most of London burning down. He was a baker to King Charles II. Just for fun... - An interactive story from the Museum of London mixes facts about the fire with multiple-choice questions to answer along the way - Great Fire 1666: A Minecraft Experience – explore Minecraft maps to find hidden objects, burn London, fight the fire and rebuild the city! - Complete a CBBC Newsround Great Fire of London quiz - On 4 September 2016 a wooden replica of the 1666 city was set ablaze on the Thames to mark the 350th anniversary of the Great Fire - See London before and after 1666 in an animation of the Great Fire - Watch the Horrible Histories Grisly Great Fire of London Special - Read The Great Fire of London poem for kids by Paul Perro - Explore the Great Fire of London through dance and movement activities - Take the Grisly Great Fire of London Horrible Histories quiz Find out more about the Great Fire: - The Museum of London has a whole website dedicated to the Great Fire and it's full of beautiful animations and facts to explore - A children's introduction to the Great Fire and Samuel Pepys from DKfindout! - Listen to three BBC School Radio audio clips about the Great Fire of London: before the Fire, nursery rhymes based on the Fire and rebuilding London after the Fire - What was the Great Fire of London? Read CBBC's newsround report - The Great Fire explained by the London Fire Brigade - Read about the Great Fire of London in numbers - Watch a video showing what London streets looked like in 1666 - See a map of London showing how the Great Fire spread - Horrible Histories author Terry Deary busts Great Fire myths - Read kids' historical fiction about the Great Fire - Examine the evidence to find out more about the Great Fire: look at some of the famous documents connected with the Great Fire of London and find out how London changed as a result of the Fire - Find out more about Samuel Pepys and the Great Fire of London - See Great Fire-related items like the water buckets used to fight the fire - The story of the Great Fire of London: listen to a BBC Schools Radio programme Children's books about the Great Fire of London See for yourself - Visit the monument to the Great Fire of London near Monument tube station in London. There are stairs in the middle of the column that you can walk up, meaning you can see far across the city when you get to the top. - You can also see another memorial to the Great Fire of London, the Golden Boy of Pye Corner in Smithfield, which marks the spot where the fire stopped. - The Museum of London has items from the Great Fire on general display. - Follow a self-guided tour of the destruction left by the Great Fire of London - A multi-sensory experience about the Great Fire of London is part of the tour at the London Dungeon.	2,621	ENGLISH	1
King Henry II was the first in a long line of Plantagenet kings of England. Also known as Henry Plantagenet, Curtmantle or FitzEmpress, Henry was the son of Matilda and Geoffrey of Anjou, and grandson of King Henry I. He grew to be a charismatic, intelligent man, who could speak many languages, which proved useful when communicating across his multi-lingual territories as king. However, Henry II was also renowned for his fiery temper, and extreme outbursts of anger. Perhaps this aggressive temperament made the king successful in controlling his vast Angevin lands, while also making peace after years of civil war left by King Stephen. - 1 King Henry II and the Angevin Empire - 2 King Henry II establishes Assizes of Clarendon and Northampton - 3 King Henry II and the Murder of Thomas Becket - 4 King Henry II and his Family Rebellion - 5 King Henry II Facts King Henry II and the Angevin Empire The Angevin Empire was not really an Empire. It wasn’t like the Holy Roman Empire, and some argue that King Henry II’s lands were not centralised, powerful or large enough to be a proper empire. Still, the territories Henry ruled were indeed vast, ranging from Scotland down to the South of France, and was the largest ’empire’ in Western Europe. Eleanor of Aquitaine King Henry II already ruled lands in France as Count of Anjou, Duke of Normandy, Duke of Aquitaine, Count of Maine and Count of Nantes. Henry’s territory and power was soon increased again, with a marriage to a formidable wife to be. The King of France, Louis VII, annulled his marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1152, as no male heir could be produced. Henry and Eleanor married the same year, expanding Henry’s territory further. So much so in fact, that Henry ruled more land than his overlord, Louis VII of France! Eleanor of Aquitaine was a powerful woman, and one of the wealthiest women in Europe. She inherited the Duchy of Aquitaine from her father, William X, in 1137. Later on in her marriage to King Henry II, she would prove to be a force to be reckoned with, and would not take second place to any mistresses of the king! Accession to the English Throne In 1153, Henry invaded England with a small army, and with gathering Angevin support he tried to conquer the north of England. However, a truce was formed with King Stephen much to the outrage of Eustace, Stephen’s son. Shortly after, Eustace died suddenly and Stephen had no choice but to accept Henry’s accession to the throne of England. King Henry II now ruled over England and most of France. King Henry II the Castle Breaker The first agenda on Henry’s list as king, was to re-establish royal authority and complete dominance, over the powerful Anglo-Norman barons. These barons had been doing as the please, pretty much, during King Stephen’s reign and the Anarchy civil war. Creating their own realms within the kingdom, and ruling as they please. This, in the eyes of King Henry II, had to be stopped. Henry set about destroying all unlicensed castles across England, tearing down and slighting so many, that the king would become known as the ‘Castle Breaker’. The next task on his list, was to regain his lost territories in Northumbria and Cumbria, from Malcolm IV of Scotland; and secure vassalage from the princes in Wales. These were successful campaigns, and a few years after King Henry II’s accession to throne, England was stable. Henry could now afford to travel extensively throughout his territories in England and France, spending most of his time in the latter. His lands would flourish under his control, and Henry was secure in the knowledge that he had the backing of Pope Adrian IV (an Englishman, born Nicholas Breakspear), who fully recognised Henry’s kingship and his authority over Ireland. King Henry II establishes Assizes of Clarendon and Northampton Lawlessness and land ownership entitlement was a big problem during this time, and something that needed controlling. Land owners leaving the country for extended periods on Crusades, would return to find squatters taking up home in their castles and houses. Mercenaries left over from the civil war, who no longer had lords to pay them, would begin spates of robbery and violence. In 1166, King Henry II set about to improve procedures relating to common law, in the Assize of Clarendon, to address these issues. At the royal hunting lodge of Clarendon, Henry and his lords established the first trial by jury, consisting of 12 men in each hundred and 4 men in each township. The jury would be responsible for naming any criminal suspected of serious crimes in their area, including robbery and murder. Usually amputating a foot was the punishment, however execution was also used for more serious crimes. However, this led to some miscarriages of justice, where accusers would wrongly accuse defendants of crimes they perhaps did not commit. In 1176, the assizes were updated with the Assize of Northampton. Forgery, counterfeiting and arson where now included in the list of crimes, and punishment could be the amputation of a hand too. Furthermore, the Assize of Northampton appointed six groups of justices to tour the country. Their role was to uphold the rights of land owners, making the possession of land guaranteed by law. This allowed judges to recover lost lands for their returning true owners. These assizes managed to transfer power from local barons to the royal court and judges. King Henry II and the Murder of Thomas Becket King Henry II was growing increasingly concerned over the Church’s power and dominance. Henry, who was renowned for his ability to control and establish order under his command, found that he could not do so with the Church, and in particular his once friend, Thomas Becket. Thomas Becket was the Archbishop of Canterbury, and held significant power. Henry, who was cracking down on lawlessness, had delivered the Constitutions of Clarendon to the church, for them to sign and approve. The Constitution was an attempt to curb the Church’s power and the extent of Papal authority in England. Restoring the judicial systems back to the royal court, just as they were during the reign of Henry’s grandfather, King Henry I. One of the laws in the Consitution was that all priests would have to be tried in a royal court, under a royal judge, if they had committed a crime. Before this law, they would have been tried by a bishop instead. Thomas Becket refused to accept and sign this new law. King Henry II was outraged, and a heated argument followed at the great council in Northampton Castle, in 1164. Thomas Becket and his family were forced into exile, and fled England, remaining in exile for six years. During the six years, the Pope acted as an intermediary between King Henry II and Thomas Becket. Becket, at one point, threatened to excommunicate England, but the Pope voted for a more diplomatic solution. In 1170, Henry eventually compromised, and allowed Thomas Becket to return to England. However, in June that year, more trouble would follow. The Archbishop of York, the Bishop of London and the Bishop of Salisbury crowned King Henry II’s son, Henry the younger, as heir apparent. Thomas Becket found this a breach of Canterbury’s privilege of coronation and excommunicated all the Bishops. Upon hearing this news, King Henry II flew into another rage, and uttered: Will no one rid me of this turbulent priest? Four of Henry’s loyal knights, William de Tracy, Reginald Fitzurse, Hugh de Morville, and Richard le Breton interpreted this as a royal command, and set out to find Thomas Becket. Becket was found in Canterbury Cathedral in December 1170, and was almost expecting the knights as they arrived. They surrounded Becket, and brought down blow after blow of heavy swords onto Becket’s head and torso, splitting his head wide open and apparently spilling is brains out across the stone floor. News of Thomas Becket’s death spread quickly, and was widely condemned. King Henry II was devastated by this death, and could not believe that his words uttered on that fateful night, would result in the Archbishop’s murder. Thomas Becket was later canonised a saint and martyr, in 1173, by Pope Alexander III, and in 1174, Henry paid penance by entering Canterbury Cathedral in bare feet, and knelt before Becket’s tomb. He was then flogged by the priests in further penance. King Henry II and his Family Rebellion King Henry II had already confirmed Henry the younger, his oldest son, as heir, who would inherit Anjou and Normandy (His first son, William had died at a young age of a seizure). Richard, Henry’s third son, would inherit Aquitaine; Geoffrey, Henry’s fourth son, would inherit Brittany and John, Henry’s fifth son, would inherit Ireland. But frustrated by the lack of real power and authority, Henry’s sons were becoming rebellious and after Thomas Becket’s death, King Henry II’s powerful reign began to crumble around him. Revolt of 1173–74 Henry’s wife Eleanor of Aquitaine was growing resentful about Henry’s passion for mistresses. A powerful woman, Eleanor plotted to overthrow Henry while visiting Poitiers, and to advance her favourite son’s (Richard) ambitions. In 1173, Henry the younger, Richard and Geoffrey rebelled against Henry II, encouraged by Eleanor. They first invaded Normandy, along with the Bretons from Brittany and the King of France, who were appalled at the murder of Thomas Becket. But ultimately the rebellion failed and was quashed by Henry. Further rebellions continued in the North of England, while Nottingham and Norfolk were burned. King Henry II, who was dealing with the Normandy rebellion, returned to England to address the uprisings there. Local royalists managed to surprise and capture the Scottish rebel king, William the Lion, and soon after, the rebellion was crushed. Henry’s sons then swore allegiance back to their father once more, as their lord and king. Queen Eleanor was placed under house arrest. Only John, Henry’s youngest son, appeared to remain loyal to Henry through this time. In the summer of 1183, Henry the younger contracted dysentery and later died of fever, aged 28. As he was dying, Henry gave penance for his rebellion against his father, and wished to be reconciled with him. Upon his death, King Henry II was said to exclaim: He cost me much, but I wish he had lived to cost me more Henry II’s woes would continue with the death of his third son, Geoffrey, who died in 1185, after being trampled in a tournament accident, aged 27. Geoffrey’s good friend and ally, Prince Philip of France, was devastated. The two had allied against King Henry II on a number of occasions. By 1189, Richard’s relationship with his father, Henry II had deteriorated. King Philip II of France exploited this and allied himself with Richard, despite being friends with Henry II initially. Both Philip and Richard wanted Henry to name Richard as his heir, but Henry was stalling. At this, Richard publicly paid homage to Philip in front of the nobles and launched a surprise attack on Henry II. King Henry II, now very weary from ill health, had no choice but to negotiate a surrender. Worse still, Henry had discovered that his only loyal son, John had turned against him and allied with Richard. This was the last straw for Henry, and he died (apparently from a broken heart) 2 days later in July 1189, aged 56, at Chinon Castle in France. King Henry II Facts - Henry II was born on 5 March 1133, Le Mans, France - His father was Geoffrey, Count of Anjou - His mother was Empress Matilda - He was crowned on 19 December 1154 at Westminster Abbey, aged 22 - He married Eleanor of Aquitaine, daughter of William X, Duke of Aquitaine - He had 8 legitimate children, most notably: Henry the young king, Richard I, John Lackland - He died on 6 July 1189 at Chinon Castle, France aged 56 - He was the first Plantagenet King of England and ruled the largest territory in Western Europe King Henry II, the first Plantagenet King of England Image Source of Eleanor of Aquitaine Image Source of Thomas Becket in Exile Image Source of Thomas Becket Murder All images are in the public 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Also known as Henry Plantagenet, Curtmantle or FitzEmpress, Henry was the son of Matilda and Geoffrey of Anjou, and grandson of King Henry I. He grew to be a charismatic, intelligent man, who could speak many languages, which proved useful when communicating across his multi-lingual territories as king. However, Henry II was also renowned for his fiery temper, and extreme outbursts of anger. Perhaps this aggressive temperament made the king successful in controlling his vast Angevin lands, while also making peace after years of civil war left by King Stephen. - 1 King Henry II and the Angevin Empire - 2 King Henry II establishes Assizes of Clarendon and Northampton - 3 King Henry II and the Murder of Thomas Becket - 4 King Henry II and his Family Rebellion - 5 King Henry II Facts King Henry II and the Angevin Empire The Angevin Empire was not really an Empire. It wasn’t like the Holy Roman Empire, and some argue that King Henry II’s lands were not centralised, powerful or large enough to be a proper empire. Still, the territories Henry ruled were indeed vast, ranging from Scotland down to the South of France, and was the largest ’empire’ in Western Europe. Eleanor of Aquitaine King Henry II already ruled lands in France as Count of Anjou, Duke of Normandy, Duke of Aquitaine, Count of Maine and Count of Nantes. Henry’s territory and power was soon increased again, with a marriage to a formidable wife to be. The King of France, Louis VII, annulled his marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1152, as no male heir could be produced. Henry and Eleanor married the same year, expanding Henry’s territory further. So much so in fact, that Henry ruled more land than his overlord, Louis VII of France! Eleanor of Aquitaine was a powerful woman, and one of the wealthiest women in Europe. She inherited the Duchy of Aquitaine from her father, William X, in 1137. Later on in her marriage to King Henry II, she would prove to be a force to be reckoned with, and would not take second place to any mistresses of the king! Accession to the English Throne In 1153, Henry invaded England with a small army, and with gathering Angevin support he tried to conquer the north of England. However, a truce was formed with King Stephen much to the outrage of Eustace, Stephen’s son. Shortly after, Eustace died suddenly and Stephen had no choice but to accept Henry’s accession to the throne of England. King Henry II now ruled over England and most of France. King Henry II the Castle Breaker The first agenda on Henry’s list as king, was to re-establish royal authority and complete dominance, over the powerful Anglo-Norman barons. These barons had been doing as the please, pretty much, during King Stephen’s reign and the Anarchy civil war. Creating their own realms within the kingdom, and ruling as they please. This, in the eyes of King Henry II, had to be stopped. Henry set about destroying all unlicensed castles across England, tearing down and slighting so many, that the king would become known as the ‘Castle Breaker’. The next task on his list, was to regain his lost territories in Northumbria and Cumbria, from Malcolm IV of Scotland; and secure vassalage from the princes in Wales. These were successful campaigns, and a few years after King Henry II’s accession to throne, England was stable. Henry could now afford to travel extensively throughout his territories in England and France, spending most of his time in the latter. His lands would flourish under his control, and Henry was secure in the knowledge that he had the backing of Pope Adrian IV (an Englishman, born Nicholas Breakspear), who fully recognised Henry’s kingship and his authority over Ireland. King Henry II establishes Assizes of Clarendon and Northampton Lawlessness and land ownership entitlement was a big problem during this time, and something that needed controlling. Land owners leaving the country for extended periods on Crusades, would return to find squatters taking up home in their castles and houses. Mercenaries left over from the civil war, who no longer had lords to pay them, would begin spates of robbery and violence. In 1166, King Henry II set about to improve procedures relating to common law, in the Assize of Clarendon, to address these issues. At the royal hunting lodge of Clarendon, Henry and his lords established the first trial by jury, consisting of 12 men in each hundred and 4 men in each township. The jury would be responsible for naming any criminal suspected of serious crimes in their area, including robbery and murder. Usually amputating a foot was the punishment, however execution was also used for more serious crimes. However, this led to some miscarriages of justice, where accusers would wrongly accuse defendants of crimes they perhaps did not commit. In 1176, the assizes were updated with the Assize of Northampton. Forgery, counterfeiting and arson where now included in the list of crimes, and punishment could be the amputation of a hand too. Furthermore, the Assize of Northampton appointed six groups of justices to tour the country. Their role was to uphold the rights of land owners, making the possession of land guaranteed by law. This allowed judges to recover lost lands for their returning true owners. These assizes managed to transfer power from local barons to the royal court and judges. King Henry II and the Murder of Thomas Becket King Henry II was growing increasingly concerned over the Church’s power and dominance. Henry, who was renowned for his ability to control and establish order under his command, found that he could not do so with the Church, and in particular his once friend, Thomas Becket. Thomas Becket was the Archbishop of Canterbury, and held significant power. Henry, who was cracking down on lawlessness, had delivered the Constitutions of Clarendon to the church, for them to sign and approve. The Constitution was an attempt to curb the Church’s power and the extent of Papal authority in England. Restoring the judicial systems back to the royal court, just as they were during the reign of Henry’s grandfather, King Henry I. One of the laws in the Consitution was that all priests would have to be tried in a royal court, under a royal judge, if they had committed a crime. Before this law, they would have been tried by a bishop instead. Thomas Becket refused to accept and sign this new law. King Henry II was outraged, and a heated argument followed at the great council in Northampton Castle, in 1164. Thomas Becket and his family were forced into exile, and fled England, remaining in exile for six years. During the six years, the Pope acted as an intermediary between King Henry II and Thomas Becket. Becket, at one point, threatened to excommunicate England, but the Pope voted for a more diplomatic solution. In 1170, Henry eventually compromised, and allowed Thomas Becket to return to England. However, in June that year, more trouble would follow. The Archbishop of York, the Bishop of London and the Bishop of Salisbury crowned King Henry II’s son, Henry the younger, as heir apparent. Thomas Becket found this a breach of Canterbury’s privilege of coronation and excommunicated all the Bishops. Upon hearing this news, King Henry II flew into another rage, and uttered: Will no one rid me of this turbulent priest? Four of Henry’s loyal knights, William de Tracy, Reginald Fitzurse, Hugh de Morville, and Richard le Breton interpreted this as a royal command, and set out to find Thomas Becket. Becket was found in Canterbury Cathedral in December 1170, and was almost expecting the knights as they arrived. They surrounded Becket, and brought down blow after blow of heavy swords onto Becket’s head and torso, splitting his head wide open and apparently spilling is brains out across the stone floor. News of Thomas Becket’s death spread quickly, and was widely condemned. King Henry II was devastated by this death, and could not believe that his words uttered on that fateful night, would result in the Archbishop’s murder. Thomas Becket was later canonised a saint and martyr, in 1173, by Pope Alexander III, and in 1174, Henry paid penance by entering Canterbury Cathedral in bare feet, and knelt before Becket’s tomb. He was then flogged by the priests in further penance. King Henry II and his Family Rebellion King Henry II had already confirmed Henry the younger, his oldest son, as heir, who would inherit Anjou and Normandy (His first son, William had died at a young age of a seizure). Richard, Henry’s third son, would inherit Aquitaine; Geoffrey, Henry’s fourth son, would inherit Brittany and John, Henry’s fifth son, would inherit Ireland. But frustrated by the lack of real power and authority, Henry’s sons were becoming rebellious and after Thomas Becket’s death, King Henry II’s powerful reign began to crumble around him. Revolt of 1173–74 Henry’s wife Eleanor of Aquitaine was growing resentful about Henry’s passion for mistresses. A powerful woman, Eleanor plotted to overthrow Henry while visiting Poitiers, and to advance her favourite son’s (Richard) ambitions. In 1173, Henry the younger, Richard and Geoffrey rebelled against Henry II, encouraged by Eleanor. They first invaded Normandy, along with the Bretons from Brittany and the King of France, who were appalled at the murder of Thomas Becket. But ultimately the rebellion failed and was quashed by Henry. Further rebellions continued in the North of England, while Nottingham and Norfolk were burned. King Henry II, who was dealing with the Normandy rebellion, returned to England to address the uprisings there. Local royalists managed to surprise and capture the Scottish rebel king, William the Lion, and soon after, the rebellion was crushed. Henry’s sons then swore allegiance back to their father once more, as their lord and king. Queen Eleanor was placed under house arrest. Only John, Henry’s youngest son, appeared to remain loyal to Henry through this time. In the summer of 1183, Henry the younger contracted dysentery and later died of fever, aged 28. As he was dying, Henry gave penance for his rebellion against his father, and wished to be reconciled with him. Upon his death, King Henry II was said to exclaim: He cost me much, but I wish he had lived to cost me more Henry II’s woes would continue with the death of his third son, Geoffrey, who died in 1185, after being trampled in a tournament accident, aged 27. Geoffrey’s good friend and ally, Prince Philip of France, was devastated. The two had allied against King Henry II on a number of occasions. By 1189, Richard’s relationship with his father, Henry II had deteriorated. King Philip II of France exploited this and allied himself with Richard, despite being friends with Henry II initially. Both Philip and Richard wanted Henry to name Richard as his heir, but Henry was stalling. At this, Richard publicly paid homage to Philip in front of the nobles and launched a surprise attack on Henry II. King Henry II, now very weary from ill health, had no choice but to negotiate a surrender. Worse still, Henry had discovered that his only loyal son, John had turned against him and allied with Richard. This was the last straw for Henry, and he died (apparently from a broken heart) 2 days later in July 1189, aged 56, at Chinon Castle in France. King Henry II Facts - Henry II was born on 5 March 1133, Le Mans, France - His father was Geoffrey, Count of Anjou - His mother was Empress Matilda - He was crowned on 19 December 1154 at Westminster Abbey, aged 22 - He married Eleanor of Aquitaine, daughter of William X, Duke of Aquitaine - He had 8 legitimate children, most notably: Henry the young king, Richard I, John Lackland - He died on 6 July 1189 at Chinon Castle, France aged 56 - He was the first Plantagenet King of England and ruled the largest territory in Western Europe King Henry II, the first Plantagenet King of England Image Source of Eleanor of Aquitaine Image Source of Thomas Becket in Exile Image Source of Thomas Becket Murder All images are in the public domain	2,718	ENGLISH	1
"Tell Me Everything" One of the toughest questions we are asked at the Holocaust History Project is when someone says "tell me everything you can about the Holocaust." It is difficult because we know that this person wants to know about the Holocaust, but does not yet know enough to ask the right questions. There is so much information about the Holocaust that it is impossible to describe it all in a simple answer. We can, however, tell you what the Holocaust was and - most importantly - where you can read about it. The Holocaust was the effort of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party in Germany to exterminate the Jews and other people that they considered to be inferior. As a result about 12,000,000 people - about half of them Jews - were murdered. The murders were done by every means imaginable but most of the victims perished as a result of shooting, starvation, disease, and poison gas. Others were tortured to death or died in horrible medical experiments. Hitler took power in Germany in 1933 and almost immediately began the chain of events that led to the Holocaust. This first phase was the persecution of Jews in Germany and the other countries invaded by Hitler. It lasted until 1941. During this period, while Hitler built his power, Jews were persecuted and brutalized but there was no organized effort to systematically murder them. In late 1939 Hitler invaded Poland, beginning the Second World War. In mid-1941 Hitler invaded the Soviet Union. At about the same time - historians do not agree on exactly when - Hitler also decided that there should be a "Final Solution" to "the Jewish question." The "Final Solution" was the murder of the Jews and was mainly carried out by a military group known as the SS and a security service known as the SD. The Gestapo was part of the SD. They arrested Jews and other victims, ran the concentration camps and organized the murder squads. During the first part of this extermination 1,500,000 Jews and other people were murdered by military groups which rounded them up and shot them. Gradually the emphasis changed to concentration camps, where the prisoners were worked to death as slave laborers, and extermination camps, where they were murdered in the gas chambers. The most famous of these was Auschwitz, which was both a labor camp and an extermination camp. About 1,300,000 people perished at Auschwitz; approximately 1,000,000 of those died in the gas chambers. The Nazis targeted many groups for persecution - among them Catholics, Poles, homosexuals, Jehovah's Witnesses, Communists - but only three groups were targeted for systematic extermination: Jews, the handicapped, and the Sinti and Roma (often known as Gypsies). Sometime in 1944 it became obvious to most Nazi leaders (excepting Hitler) that they would soon be defeated and put on trial for what they had done. Several, including one of the worst of the criminals, Heinrich Himmler, tried to make deals with the Allies closing in on Nazi Germany. As a result the actual extermination stopped in November 1944, although thousands of people continued to die in the concentration camps. By that time most of the Jews who lived in Europe before the war, and millions of other innocent people, were dead. The war in Europe ended six months later, in May 1945. Where to Start Your Research: There are many good books about the Holocaust, but they are often very specialized. The following works are not too specific for the new reader: Good books about how people reacted to the Holocaust include: A good book about "euthanasia," the murder of the handicapped: A good book about the persecution of the Jews before the "Final Solution" is: Good books about Hitler and the Third Reich include: A good book about the SS is: Two extremely thorough books about Auschwitz are: Good books about children in the Holocaust include: Last modified: March 10, 2009	<urn:uuid:dd0a6ffb-7f87-4b4a-94ae-f45ada546efc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://phdn.org/archives/holocaust-history.org/short-essays/general.shtml	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00363.warc.gz	en	0.983236	801	3.65625	4	[ -0.11945177614688873, 0.48293668031692505, 0.04874862730503082, 0.04571884870529175, 0.4019874930381775, 0.16264763474464417, 0.2936773896217346, 0.10642316937446594, -0.0677005872130394, -0.0976034626364708, 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asked at the Holocaust History Project is when someone says "tell me everything you can about the Holocaust." It is difficult because we know that this person wants to know about the Holocaust, but does not yet know enough to ask the right questions. There is so much information about the Holocaust that it is impossible to describe it all in a simple answer. We can, however, tell you what the Holocaust was and - most importantly - where you can read about it. The Holocaust was the effort of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party in Germany to exterminate the Jews and other people that they considered to be inferior. As a result about 12,000,000 people - about half of them Jews - were murdered. The murders were done by every means imaginable but most of the victims perished as a result of shooting, starvation, disease, and poison gas. Others were tortured to death or died in horrible medical experiments. Hitler took power in Germany in 1933 and almost immediately began the chain of events that led to the Holocaust. This first phase was the persecution of Jews in Germany and the other countries invaded by Hitler. It lasted until 1941. During this period, while Hitler built his power, Jews were persecuted and brutalized but there was no organized effort to systematically murder them. In late 1939 Hitler invaded Poland, beginning the Second World War. In mid-1941 Hitler invaded the Soviet Union. At about the same time - historians do not agree on exactly when - Hitler also decided that there should be a "Final Solution" to "the Jewish question." The "Final Solution" was the murder of the Jews and was mainly carried out by a military group known as the SS and a security service known as the SD. The Gestapo was part of the SD. They arrested Jews and other victims, ran the concentration camps and organized the murder squads. During the first part of this extermination 1,500,000 Jews and other people were murdered by military groups which rounded them up and shot them. Gradually the emphasis changed to concentration camps, where the prisoners were worked to death as slave laborers, and extermination camps, where they were murdered in the gas chambers. The most famous of these was Auschwitz, which was both a labor camp and an extermination camp. About 1,300,000 people perished at Auschwitz; approximately 1,000,000 of those died in the gas chambers. The Nazis targeted many groups for persecution - among them Catholics, Poles, homosexuals, Jehovah's Witnesses, Communists - but only three groups were targeted for systematic extermination: Jews, the handicapped, and the Sinti and Roma (often known as Gypsies). Sometime in 1944 it became obvious to most Nazi leaders (excepting Hitler) that they would soon be defeated and put on trial for what they had done. Several, including one of the worst of the criminals, Heinrich Himmler, tried to make deals with the Allies closing in on Nazi Germany. As a result the actual extermination stopped in November 1944, although thousands of people continued to die in the concentration camps. By that time most of the Jews who lived in Europe before the war, and millions of other innocent people, were dead. The war in Europe ended six months later, in May 1945. Where to Start Your Research: There are many good books about the Holocaust, but they are often very specialized. The following works are not too specific for the new reader: Good books about how people reacted to the Holocaust include: A good book about "euthanasia," the murder of the handicapped: A good book about the persecution of the Jews before the "Final Solution" is: Good books about Hitler and the Third Reich include: A good book about the SS is: Two extremely thorough books about Auschwitz are: Good books about children in the Holocaust include: Last modified: March 10, 2009	846	ENGLISH	1
PRIME Minister Neville Chamberlain boasted of “Peace for our time” after signing a non-aggression pact with Germany 80 years ago. He was hailed as bringing peace to Europe after arriving back in Britain holding an agreement, signed by Adolf Hitler, which stated the Third Reich’s leader’s desire never to go to war with Britain again. Hitler wrote: “We are determined to continue our efforts to remove possible sources of difference and thus to contribute to assure the peace of Europe.” But Chamberlain’s much-heralded agreement wasn’t worth the paper it was written on, as the peace didn’t even last a year before Europe was plunged back into war, barely two decades after the guns had fallen silent at the end of the First World War. The Fuhrer had no intention of sticking to the promises he’d made, referring to the agreement as “just a scrap of paper” as he invaded Poland in September 1939, forcing Britain and France to declare war. There were, in fact, two pieces of paper including the infamous one Chamberlain brandished before the cameras and a jubilant crowd as he landed at Heston Airfield from Munich on September 30 the previous year. That was a personal pact between him and Hitler, signed by both men. The more important one was the Munich Agreement, signed in the city after Britain, Germany, France and Italy had convened to decide the future of Czechoslovakia’s Sudetenland. This was the newly coined name for portions of Czech territory along Germany’s borders mainly inhabited by German speakers. Czechoslovakia wasn’t even invited to the conference at which it was decided to allow Germany to occupy the Sudetenland, despite the fact it was of strategic importance to the country as it contained most of its defences. The agreement was signed in the early hours of September 30, but was dated the day before. Chamberlain’s policy of “appeasement” towards Germany in the 1930s was always controversial. Winston Churchill was firmly opposed, as he sought to find a peaceful solution to Hitler’s desire to create an enlarged German homeland.But at the time many Britons were terrified at the thought of another conflict, and the Munich talks were held against a background that had seen the Royal Navy mobilised just days previously due to German sabre-rattling. While Chamberlain was feted as a hero on his return, things quickly soured for him and Europe. 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-0.4990684986114502, -0.34267404675483704, 0.1302969753742218, 0.07115620374679565, -0.05592756345868111, -0.3557656705379486, -0.058253366500139236, 0.8007429242134094, -0.3199797570705414, 0.6382851600646973, 0.46762892603874207, 0.12563160061836243, -0.21643416583538055, 0.08187875151634216, -0.31064364314079285, -0.2471337914466858, 0.013791094534099102, 0.2353563755750656, 0.3266250193119049, 0.38656747341156006, 0.3118821084499359, -0.213173508644104, 0.18640545010566711, -0.15028145909309387, 0.641192615032196, -0.16082324087619781, 0.19737960398197174, -0.11292318999767303, 0.08200208097696304, 0.19452257454395294 ]	2	PRIME Minister Neville Chamberlain boasted of “Peace for our time” after signing a non-aggression pact with Germany 80 years ago. He was hailed as bringing peace to Europe after arriving back in Britain holding an agreement, signed by Adolf Hitler, which stated the Third Reich’s leader’s desire never to go to war with Britain again. Hitler wrote: “We are determined to continue our efforts to remove possible sources of difference and thus to contribute to assure the peace of Europe.” But Chamberlain’s much-heralded agreement wasn’t worth the paper it was written on, as the peace didn’t even last a year before Europe was plunged back into war, barely two decades after the guns had fallen silent at the end of the First World War. The Fuhrer had no intention of sticking to the promises he’d made, referring to the agreement as “just a scrap of paper” as he invaded Poland in September 1939, forcing Britain and France to declare war. There were, in fact, two pieces of paper including the infamous one Chamberlain brandished before the cameras and a jubilant crowd as he landed at Heston Airfield from Munich on September 30 the previous year. That was a personal pact between him and Hitler, signed by both men. The more important one was the Munich Agreement, signed in the city after Britain, Germany, France and Italy had convened to decide the future of Czechoslovakia’s Sudetenland. This was the newly coined name for portions of Czech territory along Germany’s borders mainly inhabited by German speakers. Czechoslovakia wasn’t even invited to the conference at which it was decided to allow Germany to occupy the Sudetenland, despite the fact it was of strategic importance to the country as it contained most of its defences. The agreement was signed in the early hours of September 30, but was dated the day before. Chamberlain’s policy of “appeasement” towards Germany in the 1930s was always controversial. Winston Churchill was firmly opposed, as he sought to find a peaceful solution to Hitler’s desire to create an enlarged German homeland.But at the time many Britons were terrified at the thought of another conflict, and the Munich talks were held against a background that had seen the Royal Navy mobilised just days previously due to German sabre-rattling. While Chamberlain was feted as a hero on his return, things quickly soured for him and Europe. He was forced to resign as Prime Minister in May 1940 and died just six months later, with his reputation in tatters.	535	ENGLISH	1
Emerald Ash Borers have shiny green bodies and an appetite for ash trees. This native Asian insect hitchhiked to North America and has killed millions of ash trees. Learn more about the emerald ash borer and what is being done to try to stop its spread. American mink have beautiful, thick, glossy fur. At one time, many were exported to other countries where farmers raised them for their fur. Find out what happened to native species when fur went out of fashion and many minks were released into the wild. Asian carp have big appetites and can leap out of the water when startled. They were brought to the United States from their native Asian habitats to control algae growth on fish farms. Find out what happened when some of these big, jumping fish escaped and made their way up the Mississippi River. Cane toads are known for their warty skin and poison glands. They were brought to Australia and other places to help control pests that were harming crops. Learn more about how the cane toad has gone from being farmer's friend to an unwanted pest. Gray squirrels are known for their bushy tails and hoarding habits. These North American natives were imported to parts of Europe and South Africa as pets, but quickly went from pets to unwanted pests. Learn more about the problems caused by invasive gray squirrels and what can be done to solve them. Starlings have glossy feathers and are aggressive competitors for nesting sites. Native to Europe and Asia, these birds were introduced to North America, Australia, and South Africa. Find out why these feathered invaders pose a threat to native birds species and farm crops. Honeybees are known for their familiar buzzing and honey production. Learn how an experiment meant to increase honey production created aggressive Africanized honeybees that have taken over territory and caused big problems for beekeepers, farmers, and anyone unlucky enough to disturb them.	<urn:uuid:4cb60132-d1fb-4e60-af28-7ced5d4c00f1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.biguniverse.com/library/books/emerald-ash-borer	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00459.warc.gz	en	0.980414	386	3.328125	3	[ -0.04172354191541672, -0.34817513823509216, 0.17122319340705872, -0.37343329191207886, 0.5277879238128662, -0.004550923127681017, 0.2689696252346039, -0.005494121462106705, -0.4507603645324707, 0.4159221053123474, 0.4959012567996979, -0.3514598309993744, 0.21898838877677917, 0.3057335615158081, -0.2887152433395386, 0.13870570063591003, -0.07541751116514206, 0.04231318086385727, -0.95466548204422, 0.10351581126451492, 0.1880561113357544, -0.14256949722766876, 0.27342483401298523, 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This native Asian insect hitchhiked to North America and has killed millions of ash trees. Learn more about the emerald ash borer and what is being done to try to stop its spread. American mink have beautiful, thick, glossy fur. At one time, many were exported to other countries where farmers raised them for their fur. Find out what happened to native species when fur went out of fashion and many minks were released into the wild. Asian carp have big appetites and can leap out of the water when startled. They were brought to the United States from their native Asian habitats to control algae growth on fish farms. Find out what happened when some of these big, jumping fish escaped and made their way up the Mississippi River. Cane toads are known for their warty skin and poison glands. They were brought to Australia and other places to help control pests that were harming crops. Learn more about how the cane toad has gone from being farmer's friend to an unwanted pest. Gray squirrels are known for their bushy tails and hoarding habits. These North American natives were imported to parts of Europe and South Africa as pets, but quickly went from pets to unwanted pests. Learn more about the problems caused by invasive gray squirrels and what can be done to solve them. Starlings have glossy feathers and are aggressive competitors for nesting sites. Native to Europe and Asia, these birds were introduced to North America, Australia, and South Africa. Find out why these feathered invaders pose a threat to native birds species and farm crops. Honeybees are known for their familiar buzzing and honey production. Learn how an experiment meant to increase honey production created aggressive Africanized honeybees that have taken over territory and caused big problems for beekeepers, farmers, and anyone unlucky enough to disturb them.	381	ENGLISH	1
Adolf Hitler had a charismatic personality of overpowering forcefulness. An amoral man, rootless and incapable of personal friendships, he looked on his fellow humans as mere bricks in the world structure he wished to erect. He knew how to appeal to people's baser instincts and made use of their fears and insecurities. He could do that, however, only because they were willing to be led, even though his programme was one of hatred and violence. His impact was wholly destructive, and nothing of what he instituted and built survived. Adolf Hitler, German political and government leader and one of the 20th century's most powerful dictators, who converted Germany into a fully militarized society and launched World War II. Making anti-Semitism a keystone of his propaganda and policies, he built up the Nazi party into a mass movement. For a time he dominated most of Europe and North Africa. He caused the slaughter of millions of Jews and others whom he considered inferior human beings. Hitler was born in Braunau am Inn, Austria, on April 20, 1889, the son of a minor customs official and a peasant girl. A poor student, he never completed high school. He applied for admission to the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna but was rejected for lack of talent. Staying in Vienna until 1913, he lived first on an orphan's pension, later on small earnings from pictures he drew. He read voraciously, developing anti-Jewish and antidemocratic convictions, an admiration for the outstanding individual, and a contempt for the masses. In World War I, Hitler, by then in Munich, volunteered for service in the Bavarian army. He proved a dedicated, courageous soldier, but was never promoted beyond private first class because his superiors thought him lacking in leadership qualities. After Germany's defeat in 1918 he returned to Munich, remaining in the army until 1920. His commander made him an education officer, with the mandate to immunize his charges against pacifist and democratic ideas. In September 1919 he joined the nationalist German Workers' party, and in April 1920 he went to work full time for the party, now renamed the National Socialist German Workers' (Nazi) party. In 1921 he was elected party chairman (Führer) with dictatorial powers. Organizing meeting after meeting, terrorizing political foes with groups of party thugs, Hitler spread his gospel of racial hatred and contempt for democracy. He soon became a key figure in Bavarian politics, aided by high officials and businessmen. In November 1923, a time of political and economic chaos, he led an uprising (Putsch) in Munich against the post-war Weimar Republic, proclaiming himself chancellor of a new authoritarian regime. Without military support, however, the Putsch collapsed.As leader of the plot, Hitler was sentenced to five years' imprisonment and spent the eight months he actually served dictating his autobiography Mein Kampf. Released as a result of a general amnesty in December 1924, he rebuilt his party without interference from those whose government he had tried to overthrow. When the Great Depression struck in 1929, his explanation of it as a Jewish-Communist plot was accepted by many Germans. Promising a strong Germany, jobs, and national glory, he attracted millions of voters. Nazi representation in the Reichstag (parliament) rose from 12 seats in 1928 to 107 seats in 1930. During the following two years the party kept expanding, benefiting from growing unemployment, fear of Communism, Hitler's self-certainty, and the diffidence of his political rivals. Nevertheless, when Hitler was appointed chancellor in January 1933, he was expected to be an easily controlled tool of big business. Once in power, however, Hitler quickly established himself as a dictator. Thousands of anti-Nazis were hauled off to concentration camps and all signs of dissent suppressed. An Enabling Act passed by a subservient legislature allowed him to Nazify the bureaucracy and the judiciary, replace all labour unions with one Nazi-controlled German Labour Front, and ban all political parties except his own. The economy, the media, and all cultural activities were brought under Nazi authority by making an individual's livelihood dependent on his or her political loyalty. Hitler relied on his secret police, the Gestapo, and on jails and camps to intimidate his opponents, but most Germans supported him enthusiastically. His armament drive wiped out unemployment, an ambitious recreational programme attracted workers and employees, and his foreign policy successes impressed the nation. He thus managed to mould the German people into the pliable tool he needed to establish German rule over Europe and other parts of the world. Discrediting the churches with charges of corruption and immorality, he imposed his own brutal moral code. He derided the concept of human equality and claimed racial superiority for the Germans. As the master race, they were told, they had the right to dominate all nations they subjected. The increasingly ruthless persecution of the Jews was to inure the Germans to this task. Setting out on his empire-building mission, Hitler launched Germany's open rearmament in 1935 (in defiance of the World War I peace treaty), sent troops into the demilitarized Rhineland in 1936, and annexed Austria and Czechoslovakia's Sudetenland in 1938. In March 1939 he brought the remainder of Czechoslovakia under German control. He also came to the aid of Francisco Franco's rebels in Spain's civil war (1936-1939). Outmanoeuvred and fearful of war, no national leader offered resistance to his moves. World War II Hitler realized, however, that any further moves might lead to a European conflict, and he unhesitatingly prepared for the struggle, which he believed would strengthen Germany's moral fibre. Having neutralized the Soviet Union with the promise of a partition of Poland after the latter's defeat, he attacked Poland in September 1939. The Poles were quickly overpowered, and their allies, the British and French, who had declared war on Germany, would do nothing to help. In the spring of 1940 Hitler's forces overran Denmark and Norway and a few weeks later routed the Netherlands, Belgium, and France. The defeat of Britain was averted by the Royal Air Force, which fended off the German Luftwaffe. Driven by his ambitions and his hatred of communism, Hitler then turned on the Soviet Union. To protect his flank, he first subdued the Balkan Peninsula. The invasion of the USSR in June 1941 quickly carried the German armies to the gates of Moscow, but in December they were pushed back by the Russians, just as the United States entered the war. Hitler then realized that the war was lost militarily, but he resolved to play for time in the hope that some new miracle weapon or a diplomatic manoeuvre might still save the situation. As time passed and defeat became more certain, Hitler still refused to give up, feeling that Germany did not deserve to survive because it had not lived up to its mission. Throughout this period, moreover, the campaign to destroy world Jewry continued, and endless trains took millions of Jews to extermination camps, seriously interfering with the war effort. An officers' plot to assassinate Hitler and end the war failed in 1944. Finally, on April 30, 1945, with all of Germany overrun by Allied invaders, Hitler committed suicide in his Berlin bunker, as did his long-time companion, Eva Braun, whom he had married the day before.	<urn:uuid:be429be1-87f9-4f6f-a037-e4cea519350a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://referaty.centrum.sk/cudzie_jazyky/anglictina/27493/?print=1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00528.warc.gz	en	0.980398	1,511	3.375	3	[ -0.2769371271133423, 0.9791411757469177, -0.016400501132011414, 0.09646546840667725, -0.19844910502433777, 0.3007078170776367, 0.3856300413608551, -0.030813882127404213, -0.11482272297143936, -0.3106868863105774, 0.35588932037353516, -0.3123340606689453, 0.4730363190174103, 0.2269611358642578, 0.08869614452123642, 0.37571483850479126, -0.08496788144111633, 0.387633353471756, -0.9225252866744995, 0.14919286966323853, 0.1985703557729721, -0.25612127780914307, 0.4722854495048523, -0.22354763746261597, 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An amoral man, rootless and incapable of personal friendships, he looked on his fellow humans as mere bricks in the world structure he wished to erect. He knew how to appeal to people's baser instincts and made use of their fears and insecurities. He could do that, however, only because they were willing to be led, even though his programme was one of hatred and violence. His impact was wholly destructive, and nothing of what he instituted and built survived. Adolf Hitler, German political and government leader and one of the 20th century's most powerful dictators, who converted Germany into a fully militarized society and launched World War II. Making anti-Semitism a keystone of his propaganda and policies, he built up the Nazi party into a mass movement. For a time he dominated most of Europe and North Africa. He caused the slaughter of millions of Jews and others whom he considered inferior human beings. Hitler was born in Braunau am Inn, Austria, on April 20, 1889, the son of a minor customs official and a peasant girl. A poor student, he never completed high school. He applied for admission to the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna but was rejected for lack of talent. Staying in Vienna until 1913, he lived first on an orphan's pension, later on small earnings from pictures he drew. He read voraciously, developing anti-Jewish and antidemocratic convictions, an admiration for the outstanding individual, and a contempt for the masses. In World War I, Hitler, by then in Munich, volunteered for service in the Bavarian army. He proved a dedicated, courageous soldier, but was never promoted beyond private first class because his superiors thought him lacking in leadership qualities. After Germany's defeat in 1918 he returned to Munich, remaining in the army until 1920. His commander made him an education officer, with the mandate to immunize his charges against pacifist and democratic ideas. In September 1919 he joined the nationalist German Workers' party, and in April 1920 he went to work full time for the party, now renamed the National Socialist German Workers' (Nazi) party. In 1921 he was elected party chairman (Führer) with dictatorial powers. Organizing meeting after meeting, terrorizing political foes with groups of party thugs, Hitler spread his gospel of racial hatred and contempt for democracy. He soon became a key figure in Bavarian politics, aided by high officials and businessmen. In November 1923, a time of political and economic chaos, he led an uprising (Putsch) in Munich against the post-war Weimar Republic, proclaiming himself chancellor of a new authoritarian regime. Without military support, however, the Putsch collapsed.As leader of the plot, Hitler was sentenced to five years' imprisonment and spent the eight months he actually served dictating his autobiography Mein Kampf. Released as a result of a general amnesty in December 1924, he rebuilt his party without interference from those whose government he had tried to overthrow. When the Great Depression struck in 1929, his explanation of it as a Jewish-Communist plot was accepted by many Germans. Promising a strong Germany, jobs, and national glory, he attracted millions of voters. Nazi representation in the Reichstag (parliament) rose from 12 seats in 1928 to 107 seats in 1930. During the following two years the party kept expanding, benefiting from growing unemployment, fear of Communism, Hitler's self-certainty, and the diffidence of his political rivals. Nevertheless, when Hitler was appointed chancellor in January 1933, he was expected to be an easily controlled tool of big business. Once in power, however, Hitler quickly established himself as a dictator. Thousands of anti-Nazis were hauled off to concentration camps and all signs of dissent suppressed. An Enabling Act passed by a subservient legislature allowed him to Nazify the bureaucracy and the judiciary, replace all labour unions with one Nazi-controlled German Labour Front, and ban all political parties except his own. The economy, the media, and all cultural activities were brought under Nazi authority by making an individual's livelihood dependent on his or her political loyalty. Hitler relied on his secret police, the Gestapo, and on jails and camps to intimidate his opponents, but most Germans supported him enthusiastically. His armament drive wiped out unemployment, an ambitious recreational programme attracted workers and employees, and his foreign policy successes impressed the nation. He thus managed to mould the German people into the pliable tool he needed to establish German rule over Europe and other parts of the world. Discrediting the churches with charges of corruption and immorality, he imposed his own brutal moral code. He derided the concept of human equality and claimed racial superiority for the Germans. As the master race, they were told, they had the right to dominate all nations they subjected. The increasingly ruthless persecution of the Jews was to inure the Germans to this task. Setting out on his empire-building mission, Hitler launched Germany's open rearmament in 1935 (in defiance of the World War I peace treaty), sent troops into the demilitarized Rhineland in 1936, and annexed Austria and Czechoslovakia's Sudetenland in 1938. In March 1939 he brought the remainder of Czechoslovakia under German control. He also came to the aid of Francisco Franco's rebels in Spain's civil war (1936-1939). Outmanoeuvred and fearful of war, no national leader offered resistance to his moves. World War II Hitler realized, however, that any further moves might lead to a European conflict, and he unhesitatingly prepared for the struggle, which he believed would strengthen Germany's moral fibre. Having neutralized the Soviet Union with the promise of a partition of Poland after the latter's defeat, he attacked Poland in September 1939. The Poles were quickly overpowered, and their allies, the British and French, who had declared war on Germany, would do nothing to help. In the spring of 1940 Hitler's forces overran Denmark and Norway and a few weeks later routed the Netherlands, Belgium, and France. The defeat of Britain was averted by the Royal Air Force, which fended off the German Luftwaffe. Driven by his ambitions and his hatred of communism, Hitler then turned on the Soviet Union. To protect his flank, he first subdued the Balkan Peninsula. The invasion of the USSR in June 1941 quickly carried the German armies to the gates of Moscow, but in December they were pushed back by the Russians, just as the United States entered the war. Hitler then realized that the war was lost militarily, but he resolved to play for time in the hope that some new miracle weapon or a diplomatic manoeuvre might still save the situation. As time passed and defeat became more certain, Hitler still refused to give up, feeling that Germany did not deserve to survive because it had not lived up to its mission. Throughout this period, moreover, the campaign to destroy world Jewry continued, and endless trains took millions of Jews to extermination camps, seriously interfering with the war effort. An officers' plot to assassinate Hitler and end the war failed in 1944. Finally, on April 30, 1945, with all of Germany overrun by Allied invaders, Hitler committed suicide in his Berlin bunker, as did his long-time companion, Eva Braun, whom he had married the day before.	1,604	ENGLISH	1
Summary: St Celestine was a deacon at Rome in the time of Pope Innocent I (401-417). Later he himself became Pope. continued the fight against the Pelagian heresy, which was now waning. He had the satisfaction of seeing it die away in Britain, where its founder came from.Traditionally it was said that he was was the pope […] The tradition in Ireland is that St Celestine was the pope who sent St Patrick to Ireland. He condemned the Nestorian heresy. And he is credited as the pope who introduced the responsorial psalm into the Mass in Rome. Patrick Duffy tells his story. Influenced by St Ambrose at Milan and acquainted with St Augustine A Campanian, Celestine is said to have lived for a while with St. Ambrose at Milan. He was certainly a deacon at Rome in the time of Pope Innocent I (401-417). In contrast to the stormy election of of his predecessor Pope Boniface (418-422), Celestine’s election seems to have been quiet and harmonious. Against Pelagianism and Semi-Pelagianism Once he became pope, St Celestine continued the fight against the Pelagian heresy, which was now waning. He had the satisfaction of seeing it die away in Britain, where its founder came from. When the heresy in the diluted form known as Semi-Pelagianism raised its head in Gaul, Celestine wrote against this new danger. A great friend of St. Augustine, he wrote a letter to the bishops of Gaul on the occasion of the mighty father’s death (430), praising him and forbidding all attacks on his memory. But the new heresy of Nestorianism raised its head in the East. Nestorius was a priest from Antioch who when he became patriarch of Constantinople began to teach that in Christ there are not only two natures, which is correct, but that there are also two persons, which is incorrect. A logical consequence was that Mary was not the Mother of God (theo-tokos) but only of the human person of Christ (christo-tokos). This aroused horror even in Constantinople itself, while St. Cyril, the patriarch of Alexandria, attacked the new doctrine most vigorously. Both Nestorius and Cyril were soon clamouring to the Pope for a decision. Celestine held a synod at Rome in 430 and condemned Nestorianism. Nestorius was to be deposed and excommunicated if he persisted in teaching false doctrine. Nestorius refused to submit, all the more because Cyril, who had been made the Pope’s agent in the matter, demanded more than Celestine had asked. A general council was called to meet at Ephesus in 431. The council condemned Nestorianism, to the great joy of the people. St Patrick to Ireland? Traditionally it was said that Pope Celestine a short time before his death personally commissioned St. Patrick to preach the gospel to the Irish. Perhaps it was Celestine who sent Palladius and it may be that Patrick came later. At any rate, St. Prosper of Aquitaine says in his Chronicle that Celestine saved the Roman island for the faith (De Paor, St Patrick’s World, 154). Churches in Rome Celestine restored, which had been destroyed by the Goths. He also caused some interesting pictures of the saints to be painted in the Church of St. Sylvester. Introduced the responsorial psalm into the Liturgy of the Word at Rome The church music historian Peter Jeffrey has pointed to the tradition in the Liber Pontificalis that it was Pope Celestine who introduced the responsorial psalm into the papal Mass at Rome, having experienced that practice as a young man at Milan when he was there while Ambrose was bishop. Perhaps it was also from Milan that Augustine could also have brought the same practice to Hippo in Africa. St. Celestine I died on 26 July 432. He was buried in the cemetery of St. Priscilla in the Via Salaria, but his body, subsequently moved, now lies in the Basilica di Santa Prassede. In art, Saint Celestine is portrayed as a Pope with a dove, dragon, and flame, and is recognized by the Church as a saint.	<urn:uuid:80be05fe-70fb-4dab-86ba-fafce5fd8989>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.catholicireland.net/saintoftheday/pope-st-celestine-i-422-432-did-he-send-st-patrick-to-ireland/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00014.warc.gz	en	0.984152	900	3.28125	3	[ -0.3838275969028473, 0.5704171657562256, -0.21678894758224487, -0.04264095053076744, -0.18334552645683289, -0.06527475267648697, 0.0259519312530756, 0.19967731833457947, 0.3655305802822113, -0.2186964452266693, -0.469600111246109, -0.30111926794052124, -0.01969447359442711, 0.13793429732322693, 0.017079276964068413, -0.5267801284790039, -0.5765790939331055, 0.5679860711097717, -0.44678401947021484, 0.04483817517757416, -0.05508999526500702, -0.3280714750289917, -0.09399349987506866, -0.5681126713752747, -0.14085406064987183, 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-0.33623093366622925, 0.1105450838804245, 0.4279499650001526, -0.25154438614845276, 0.20206111669540405, -0.11093121767044067, -0.07387279719114304, -0.27099746465682983, 0.5639204978942871, -0.03893968462944031, -0.08321657031774521, 0.6924912929534912, -0.1568821668624878, -0.059866778552532196, -0.14619103074073792, 0.5125936269760132, 0.23641802370548248, -0.1494486927986145, 0.16314876079559326, 0.011222497560083866, 0.397464781999588, 0.03904739022254944, 0.1430903822183609, -0.28276190161705017, -0.08457056432962418, 0.4003896117210388, 0.252535879611969, -0.11659534275531769, -0.31570151448249817, 0.32808801531791687, 0.5747028589248657, 0.5589349269866943 ]	1	Summary: St Celestine was a deacon at Rome in the time of Pope Innocent I (401-417). Later he himself became Pope. continued the fight against the Pelagian heresy, which was now waning. He had the satisfaction of seeing it die away in Britain, where its founder came from.Traditionally it was said that he was was the pope […] The tradition in Ireland is that St Celestine was the pope who sent St Patrick to Ireland. He condemned the Nestorian heresy. And he is credited as the pope who introduced the responsorial psalm into the Mass in Rome. Patrick Duffy tells his story. Influenced by St Ambrose at Milan and acquainted with St Augustine A Campanian, Celestine is said to have lived for a while with St. Ambrose at Milan. He was certainly a deacon at Rome in the time of Pope Innocent I (401-417). In contrast to the stormy election of of his predecessor Pope Boniface (418-422), Celestine’s election seems to have been quiet and harmonious. Against Pelagianism and Semi-Pelagianism Once he became pope, St Celestine continued the fight against the Pelagian heresy, which was now waning. He had the satisfaction of seeing it die away in Britain, where its founder came from. When the heresy in the diluted form known as Semi-Pelagianism raised its head in Gaul, Celestine wrote against this new danger. A great friend of St. Augustine, he wrote a letter to the bishops of Gaul on the occasion of the mighty father’s death (430), praising him and forbidding all attacks on his memory. But the new heresy of Nestorianism raised its head in the East. Nestorius was a priest from Antioch who when he became patriarch of Constantinople began to teach that in Christ there are not only two natures, which is correct, but that there are also two persons, which is incorrect. A logical consequence was that Mary was not the Mother of God (theo-tokos) but only of the human person of Christ (christo-tokos). This aroused horror even in Constantinople itself, while St. Cyril, the patriarch of Alexandria, attacked the new doctrine most vigorously. Both Nestorius and Cyril were soon clamouring to the Pope for a decision. Celestine held a synod at Rome in 430 and condemned Nestorianism. Nestorius was to be deposed and excommunicated if he persisted in teaching false doctrine. Nestorius refused to submit, all the more because Cyril, who had been made the Pope’s agent in the matter, demanded more than Celestine had asked. A general council was called to meet at Ephesus in 431. The council condemned Nestorianism, to the great joy of the people. St Patrick to Ireland? Traditionally it was said that Pope Celestine a short time before his death personally commissioned St. Patrick to preach the gospel to the Irish. Perhaps it was Celestine who sent Palladius and it may be that Patrick came later. At any rate, St. Prosper of Aquitaine says in his Chronicle that Celestine saved the Roman island for the faith (De Paor, St Patrick’s World, 154). Churches in Rome Celestine restored, which had been destroyed by the Goths. He also caused some interesting pictures of the saints to be painted in the Church of St. Sylvester. Introduced the responsorial psalm into the Liturgy of the Word at Rome The church music historian Peter Jeffrey has pointed to the tradition in the Liber Pontificalis that it was Pope Celestine who introduced the responsorial psalm into the papal Mass at Rome, having experienced that practice as a young man at Milan when he was there while Ambrose was bishop. Perhaps it was also from Milan that Augustine could also have brought the same practice to Hippo in Africa. St. Celestine I died on 26 July 432. He was buried in the cemetery of St. Priscilla in the Via Salaria, but his body, subsequently moved, now lies in the Basilica di Santa Prassede. In art, Saint Celestine is portrayed as a Pope with a dove, dragon, and flame, and is recognized by the Church as a saint.	931	ENGLISH	1
Marcus Salvius Otho FREE Catholic Classes Roman emperor, successor, after Galba, of Nero, b. in Rome, of an ancient Etruscan family settled at Ferentinum, 28 April, A.D. 32; d. at Brixellum on the Po, 15 April, 69. He led a profligate life at the court of Nero. As husband of the courtesan Poppæa Sabina he was sent for appearance's sake to Lusitania as governor. When Sulpicius Galba was proclaimed emperor, Otho returned to Rome with him. In contrast to the miserly Galba, he sought to win the affection of the troops by generosity. On 15 January, 69, five days after Galba had appointed Lucius Calpurnius Piso co-emperor and successor, twenty-three soldiers proclaimed Otho emperor upon the open street. As Galba hurried to take measures against this procedure, he and his escort encountered his opponents at the Forum; there was a struggle, and Galba was murdered. Otho was now sole ruler; the senate confirmed his authority. The statues of Nero were again set up by Otho who also set aside an immense sum of money for the completion of Nero's Golden House ( Aurea Domus ). Meantime Aulus Vitellius, legate under Galba to southern Germany, was proclaimed emperor at Cologne. Alienus Cæcina, who had been punished by Galba for his outrageous extortion, persuaded the legions of northern Germany to agree to this choice; their example was followed by the troops in Britain. In a short time a third of the standing army had renounced the emperor at Rome. In the winter of 69 these troops advanced into the plain of the River Po, stimulated by anticipation of the wealth of Italy and Rome, and strengthened by the presence of German and Belgian auxiliaries. On the march they learned that Galba was dead and Otho was his successor. At first Vitellius entered into negotiations with the new ruler at Rome. Compromise failing, both made ready for the decisive struggle. Otho vainly sought to force the citizens of Rome to take energetic measures for security. To expiate any wrong done he recalled the innocent persons who had been banished by Nero's reign, and caused Nero's evil adviser, Sophonius Tigellinus, to be put to death. Finally he placed the republic in the care of the Senate and started for upper Italy on 14 March, with the main part of his guard, that had been collected in Rome, and two legions of soldiers belonging to the navy, while seven legions were advancing from Dalmatia, Pannonia, and Mœsia. A fleet near Narbonensis was to check the hostile troops from Gaul, that would advance from the south. After some favourable preliminary skirmishes near Placentia and Cremona Otho gave the command for a pitched battle before a junction had been effected with the legions from Mœsia. While the emperor himself remained far from the struggle at Brixellum on the right bank of the Po, his soldiers were defeated in battle near Cremona, and large numbers of them killed (14 April). The next day the remnant of his army was obliged to surrender. On receiving news of the defeat, Otho killed himself. His body was burned, as he had directed, on the spot where he had so ingloriously ended. Vitellus was recognized as emperor by the Senate. Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited. Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law.	<urn:uuid:baa01a71-b8a6-4e3b-bbea-9cb4ce9ceb2b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.catholic.org/encyclopedia/view.php?id=8835	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00442.warc.gz	en	0.980366	865	3.359375	3	[ -0.2851179242134094, 0.3519452214241028, 0.3232373595237732, -0.09417770802974701, -0.21981041133403778, -0.3643640875816345, 0.23121783137321472, 0.09137462079524994, 0.2216428816318512, -0.43449801206588745, 0.3443111181259155, -0.7241640090942383, -0.17398296296596527, 0.24917785823345184, 0.058852940797805786, -0.6075230836868286, -0.37085676193237305, 0.5970947742462158, -0.36433202028274536, -0.04216744750738144, 0.4587060213088989, -0.683554470539093, -0.12378160655498505, -0.3728945553302765, 0.1897239089012146, 0.2348458617925644, 0.32357674837112427, -0.4745660424232483, -0.4498819410800934, -1.332664132118225, 0.12440663576126099, -0.40126460790634155, 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He led a profligate life at the court of Nero. As husband of the courtesan Poppæa Sabina he was sent for appearance's sake to Lusitania as governor. When Sulpicius Galba was proclaimed emperor, Otho returned to Rome with him. In contrast to the miserly Galba, he sought to win the affection of the troops by generosity. On 15 January, 69, five days after Galba had appointed Lucius Calpurnius Piso co-emperor and successor, twenty-three soldiers proclaimed Otho emperor upon the open street. As Galba hurried to take measures against this procedure, he and his escort encountered his opponents at the Forum; there was a struggle, and Galba was murdered. Otho was now sole ruler; the senate confirmed his authority. The statues of Nero were again set up by Otho who also set aside an immense sum of money for the completion of Nero's Golden House ( Aurea Domus ). Meantime Aulus Vitellius, legate under Galba to southern Germany, was proclaimed emperor at Cologne. Alienus Cæcina, who had been punished by Galba for his outrageous extortion, persuaded the legions of northern Germany to agree to this choice; their example was followed by the troops in Britain. In a short time a third of the standing army had renounced the emperor at Rome. In the winter of 69 these troops advanced into the plain of the River Po, stimulated by anticipation of the wealth of Italy and Rome, and strengthened by the presence of German and Belgian auxiliaries. On the march they learned that Galba was dead and Otho was his successor. At first Vitellius entered into negotiations with the new ruler at Rome. Compromise failing, both made ready for the decisive struggle. Otho vainly sought to force the citizens of Rome to take energetic measures for security. To expiate any wrong done he recalled the innocent persons who had been banished by Nero's reign, and caused Nero's evil adviser, Sophonius Tigellinus, to be put to death. Finally he placed the republic in the care of the Senate and started for upper Italy on 14 March, with the main part of his guard, that had been collected in Rome, and two legions of soldiers belonging to the navy, while seven legions were advancing from Dalmatia, Pannonia, and Mœsia. A fleet near Narbonensis was to check the hostile troops from Gaul, that would advance from the south. After some favourable preliminary skirmishes near Placentia and Cremona Otho gave the command for a pitched battle before a junction had been effected with the legions from Mœsia. While the emperor himself remained far from the struggle at Brixellum on the right bank of the Po, his soldiers were defeated in battle near Cremona, and large numbers of them killed (14 April). The next day the remnant of his army was obliged to surrender. On receiving news of the defeat, Otho killed himself. His body was burned, as he had directed, on the spot where he had so ingloriously ended. Vitellus was recognized as emperor by the Senate. Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited. Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law.	893	ENGLISH	1
Romulus and Remus Birth and youth[change \| change source] Rhea Silvia was the daughter of Numitor Silvius, king of Alba Longa, a legendary town founded by Ascanius, son of Aeneas, prince of Troy. When Numitor's brother Amulius became king by force, he made Rhea Silvia a Vestal Virgin, so she would not have children who could be kings instead of him. But the god Mars seduced her and she had the twins Romulus and Remus. Rhea Silvia was punished, and her sons were thrown into the Tiber, but were saved by the river god Tiberinus, who also saved Rhea Silvia and married her. Romulus and Remus were found by a wolf who suckled them. A woodpecker fed them. The brothers were later found by a shepherd, Faustulus, who raised them. The founding of Rome[change \| change source] Once they were grown, Romulus and Remus founded the city of Rome. However, the twins had an argument about where to start Rome. Romulus favored the Palatine Hill, but Remus favored the Aventine Hill. They decided to settle the disagreement by asking the gods. Each brother stood on his respective hill. Remus saw six birds fly overhead, and Romulus saw twelve. However, Remus countered that he had seen the birds first. Nonetheless, Romulus started to build a wall around his city. Then, Remus jumped over the wall as an insult to his brother. Angered, Romulus killed Remus. He regretted it, and took Remus to Amulius's palace, and buried him there. Other websites[change \| change source] Media related to Romulus and Remus at Wikimedia Commons	<urn:uuid:09ae32b9-d437-4cc6-8b0f-e78f6a9264cd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romulus_and_Remus	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00341.warc.gz	en	0.987243	373	3.375	3	[ -0.38611122965812683, 0.2866428792476654, 0.19106154143810272, 0.01726229302585125, -0.3761994540691376, -0.16166406869888306, -0.049006130546331406, 0.18294045329093933, 0.03704715892672539, -0.22013498842716217, 0.22053760290145874, -0.5532739758491516, -0.12593558430671692, -0.003191254800185561, -0.1027325987815857, -0.34148743748664856, -0.43412014842033386, 0.4712678790092468, -1.095340609550476, 0.11839532852172852, 0.31858181953430176, -0.6004080772399902, 0.14519080519676208, -0.2997617721557617, 0.3516043722629547, 0.2536584138870239, -0.10424773395061493, 0.010336478240787983, -0.25964149832725525, 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0.07559859752655029, -0.45395246148109436, 0.13540774583816528, -0.479000449180603, -0.10917012393474579, 0.925230860710144, -0.10558140277862549, -0.14378722012043, 0.012123406864702702, 0.16559123992919922, 0.2975309193134308, -0.12254582345485687, -0.08446810394525528, -0.1029442623257637, 0.2547360062599182, -0.12260258942842484, 0.24498409032821655, -0.7707962393760681, -0.25155967473983765, 0.0490386076271534, 0.09586039930582047, -0.07124999910593033, -0.1561635583639145, 0.13926579058170319, 0.22130756080150604, 0.19924968481063843 ]	6	Romulus and Remus Birth and youth[change \| change source] Rhea Silvia was the daughter of Numitor Silvius, king of Alba Longa, a legendary town founded by Ascanius, son of Aeneas, prince of Troy. When Numitor's brother Amulius became king by force, he made Rhea Silvia a Vestal Virgin, so she would not have children who could be kings instead of him. But the god Mars seduced her and she had the twins Romulus and Remus. Rhea Silvia was punished, and her sons were thrown into the Tiber, but were saved by the river god Tiberinus, who also saved Rhea Silvia and married her. Romulus and Remus were found by a wolf who suckled them. A woodpecker fed them. The brothers were later found by a shepherd, Faustulus, who raised them. The founding of Rome[change \| change source] Once they were grown, Romulus and Remus founded the city of Rome. However, the twins had an argument about where to start Rome. Romulus favored the Palatine Hill, but Remus favored the Aventine Hill. They decided to settle the disagreement by asking the gods. Each brother stood on his respective hill. Remus saw six birds fly overhead, and Romulus saw twelve. However, Remus countered that he had seen the birds first. Nonetheless, Romulus started to build a wall around his city. Then, Remus jumped over the wall as an insult to his brother. Angered, Romulus killed Remus. He regretted it, and took Remus to Amulius's palace, and buried him there. Other websites[change \| change source] Media related to Romulus and Remus at Wikimedia Commons	370	ENGLISH	1
Certified Educator It is important, too, to acknowledge the structure of the narrative. It begins with a preface, written by William Lloyd Garrison, a well-known Massachusetts abolitionist, publisher of The Liberator, an anti-slavery newspaper, and a friend and associate of Douglass. In this preface, Garrison certifies that "Mr. Douglass has very properly chosen to write his own Narrative, in his own style, and according to the best of his ability, rather than to employ someone else. His influence can be seen in the politics and writings of almost all major African-American writers, from Richard Wright to Maya Angelou. Douglass, however, is an inspiration to more than just African Americans. He spoke out against oppression throughout America and abroad, and his struggle for freedom, self-discovery, and identity stands as a testament for all time, for all people. Born into slavery aroundhe eventually escaped and became a respected American diplomat, a counselor to four presidents, a highly regarded orator, and an influential writer. He accomplished all of these feats without any formal education. His Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave is a moving account of the courage of one man's struggle against the injustice of antebellum slavery. Published insixteen years before the Civil War began, the Narrative describes Douglass' life from early childhood until his escape from slavery in Douglass uses a matter-of-fact voice, logical analysis, and a dignified tone, but no one can read his account without feeling emotionally sickened by the horrors of slavery. Produced in an era before visual and audio electronic recordings were possible, Douglass' Narrative is an important testimony. Had there not been literate slaves who wrote about their sufferings, our knowledge and understanding of this shameful period of America's past might well be different. He didn't know who his father was, but, near the beginning of the Narrative, Douglass suggests that his white master may have been his father. He recalls meeting his mother only four or five times. She was assigned to work in a field many miles away and was not allowed to stay with her son, seeing him only furtively during rare visits at night. Frederick was initially raised by his grandparents, Betsey and Isaac Bailey, and later by Captain Anthony, who owned two or three farms and about thirty slaves; he was a clerk and superintendent for Colonel Lloyd's plantation. In one of the most poignant episodes at the beginning of the Narrative, Douglass recalls being treated like an animal and having to live in the same breeding pens as the plantation's dogs and pigs. At first, he was treated with great kindness by Sophia Auld; her husband, Hugh, however, eventually disapproved of Sophia's attempts to teach Frederick how to read and write. Such skills, he reasoned, would make Frederick "unfit. At the shipyard where he worked, he copied the scribbles of other workers to practice writing. He purchased the Columbian Orator, as well as the Baltimore American. From newspapers, he not only improved his reading ability but discovered for the first time the existence of anti-slavery movements in the North. The activists in these movements were known as abolitionists, and there were different camps within the abolitionist movement. Some of them were led by religious leaders and were closely connected with Northern Protestant churches. Resistance Upon Captain Anthony's death inFrederick was returned to rural Maryland and eventually became the property of Thomas Auld. Considered too "independent" by his new owner, teenage Frederick was placed in the care of Edward Covey, a man who had a reputation as a fierce slave-breaker. Covey beat him mercilessly and without justification. Douglass considered the turning point in his life to be the moment when he resisted Covey's beating. His Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave is a moving account of the courage of one man's struggle against the injustice of antebellum slavery. Published in , sixteen years before the Civil War began, the Narrative describes Douglass' . In it Douglass details his experiences as a slave in the south, explicitly elucidating his audience to the raw horrors of slavery and the recurrent abuses that he suffered during his time as a slave. The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass: An American Slave, Written By Himself Essential Questions: (Keep these questions in mind throughout reading this novel.) What can we learn about slavery from the writing of Frederick Douglass? In what ways does his use of language paint a realistic portrait of slavery? Describe a time. Covey couldn't break his spirit, and, for the first time in Frederick's life, a white man backed down. Escape from Slavery After Covey, Frederick was hired out to William Freeland and attempted an unsuccessful escape with five other slaves. Eventually he was returned to Baltimore, and Hugh Auld rented him out to work in the shipyards. On September 3,with the help of a freedwoman, Anna Murray who later became his wifehe escaped to New York City, disguised as a free sailor.In it Douglass details his experiences as a slave in the south, explicitly elucidating his audience to the raw horrors of slavery and the recurrent abuses that he suffered during his time as a slave. The masters think a slave who chooses to work during his time off doesn't deserve the time off, and a slave who doesn't work to save enough throughout the year to buy whiskey for the holidays is considered lazy Frederick Douglass Study Guide, Chapters 70 terms. Narrative On The Life Of Fredrick Douglass Chp. 34 terms. The. Essays for Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave: Written by Himself essays are academic essays for citation. These papers were written primarily by students and provide critical analysis of the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave: Written by Himself. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave Chapter 9 Lyrics I have now reached a period of my life when I can give dates. I left Baltimore, and went to live with Master Thomas. Frederick Douglass Biography. Frederick Douglass ( – ) African-American, anti-slavery campaigner.. Frederick Douglass was a former slave who escaped to become a powerful anti-slavery orator. Douglass wrote three autobiographies describing his experiences as a slave and gaining his . Douglass's best-known work is his first autobiography Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, written during his time in Lynn, Massachusetts and published in At the time, some skeptics questioned whether a black man could have produced such an eloquent piece of literature.	<urn:uuid:63991604-2657-418d-a6bf-22458eb6017d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://jepokuqyfaqi.heartoftexashop.com/the-life-and-influences-of-fredrick-douglass-as-a-successful-black-male-writer-of-his-time-43086tm.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00016.warc.gz	en	0.981099	1,415	3.921875	4	[ -0.1048189103603363, 0.4907439947128296, 0.3152697682380676, -0.1256614774465561, -0.20996400713920593, 0.17592500150203705, 0.2456779032945633, -0.034443147480487823, 0.05831997096538544, 0.027966808527708054, -0.10059302300214767, 0.1461244523525238, -0.1890912652015686, 0.47564083337783813, -0.17862841486930847, 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It begins with a preface, written by William Lloyd Garrison, a well-known Massachusetts abolitionist, publisher of The Liberator, an anti-slavery newspaper, and a friend and associate of Douglass. In this preface, Garrison certifies that "Mr. Douglass has very properly chosen to write his own Narrative, in his own style, and according to the best of his ability, rather than to employ someone else. His influence can be seen in the politics and writings of almost all major African-American writers, from Richard Wright to Maya Angelou. Douglass, however, is an inspiration to more than just African Americans. He spoke out against oppression throughout America and abroad, and his struggle for freedom, self-discovery, and identity stands as a testament for all time, for all people. Born into slavery aroundhe eventually escaped and became a respected American diplomat, a counselor to four presidents, a highly regarded orator, and an influential writer. He accomplished all of these feats without any formal education. His Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave is a moving account of the courage of one man's struggle against the injustice of antebellum slavery. Published insixteen years before the Civil War began, the Narrative describes Douglass' life from early childhood until his escape from slavery in Douglass uses a matter-of-fact voice, logical analysis, and a dignified tone, but no one can read his account without feeling emotionally sickened by the horrors of slavery. Produced in an era before visual and audio electronic recordings were possible, Douglass' Narrative is an important testimony. Had there not been literate slaves who wrote about their sufferings, our knowledge and understanding of this shameful period of America's past might well be different. He didn't know who his father was, but, near the beginning of the Narrative, Douglass suggests that his white master may have been his father. He recalls meeting his mother only four or five times. She was assigned to work in a field many miles away and was not allowed to stay with her son, seeing him only furtively during rare visits at night. Frederick was initially raised by his grandparents, Betsey and Isaac Bailey, and later by Captain Anthony, who owned two or three farms and about thirty slaves; he was a clerk and superintendent for Colonel Lloyd's plantation. In one of the most poignant episodes at the beginning of the Narrative, Douglass recalls being treated like an animal and having to live in the same breeding pens as the plantation's dogs and pigs. At first, he was treated with great kindness by Sophia Auld; her husband, Hugh, however, eventually disapproved of Sophia's attempts to teach Frederick how to read and write. Such skills, he reasoned, would make Frederick "unfit. At the shipyard where he worked, he copied the scribbles of other workers to practice writing. He purchased the Columbian Orator, as well as the Baltimore American. From newspapers, he not only improved his reading ability but discovered for the first time the existence of anti-slavery movements in the North. The activists in these movements were known as abolitionists, and there were different camps within the abolitionist movement. Some of them were led by religious leaders and were closely connected with Northern Protestant churches. Resistance Upon Captain Anthony's death inFrederick was returned to rural Maryland and eventually became the property of Thomas Auld. Considered too "independent" by his new owner, teenage Frederick was placed in the care of Edward Covey, a man who had a reputation as a fierce slave-breaker. Covey beat him mercilessly and without justification. Douglass considered the turning point in his life to be the moment when he resisted Covey's beating. His Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave is a moving account of the courage of one man's struggle against the injustice of antebellum slavery. Published in , sixteen years before the Civil War began, the Narrative describes Douglass' . In it Douglass details his experiences as a slave in the south, explicitly elucidating his audience to the raw horrors of slavery and the recurrent abuses that he suffered during his time as a slave. The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass: An American Slave, Written By Himself Essential Questions: (Keep these questions in mind throughout reading this novel.) What can we learn about slavery from the writing of Frederick Douglass? In what ways does his use of language paint a realistic portrait of slavery? Describe a time. Covey couldn't break his spirit, and, for the first time in Frederick's life, a white man backed down. Escape from Slavery After Covey, Frederick was hired out to William Freeland and attempted an unsuccessful escape with five other slaves. Eventually he was returned to Baltimore, and Hugh Auld rented him out to work in the shipyards. On September 3,with the help of a freedwoman, Anna Murray who later became his wifehe escaped to New York City, disguised as a free sailor.In it Douglass details his experiences as a slave in the south, explicitly elucidating his audience to the raw horrors of slavery and the recurrent abuses that he suffered during his time as a slave. The masters think a slave who chooses to work during his time off doesn't deserve the time off, and a slave who doesn't work to save enough throughout the year to buy whiskey for the holidays is considered lazy Frederick Douglass Study Guide, Chapters 70 terms. Narrative On The Life Of Fredrick Douglass Chp. 34 terms. The. Essays for Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave: Written by Himself essays are academic essays for citation. These papers were written primarily by students and provide critical analysis of the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave: Written by Himself. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave Chapter 9 Lyrics I have now reached a period of my life when I can give dates. I left Baltimore, and went to live with Master Thomas. Frederick Douglass Biography. Frederick Douglass ( – ) African-American, anti-slavery campaigner.. Frederick Douglass was a former slave who escaped to become a powerful anti-slavery orator. Douglass wrote three autobiographies describing his experiences as a slave and gaining his . Douglass's best-known work is his first autobiography Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, written during his time in Lynn, Massachusetts and published in At the time, some skeptics questioned whether a black man could have produced such an eloquent piece of literature.	1,375	ENGLISH	1
"I declare to you that woman must not depend upon the protection of man, but must be taught to protect herself, and there I take my stand." -Susan B. Anthony In the past, many injustices have robbed certain women and minorities of their dignity and rights as human beings living on planet earth. Women did not always have the respect and authorisation that they deserved; women all over the world could not vote or be involved in political parties. Thankfully times have changed, and women are viewed as equals. Nevertheless, we will consider some information about a critical movement known as the suffrage and the overall difference between suffragists and suffragettes. Background Information About the Suffrage Era The 20th century was marked by many historical events that forever changed the face of history. Mankind learned many valuable lessons from past events such as World War One, World War Two, the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Great Depression, the Russian Revolution, and the First Man on the Moon. Also, it is essential to state that the 20th century wouldn't have been the same without the suffragette movement. What is the suffrage movement? The suffrage movement, aka woman suffrage, was the struggle for the right of women to vote and run for office. The suffrage movement is part of the overall women's movement that occurred in countries all around the world; most notably the United States and the UK. Many women formed organisations to join forces and fight for women's suffrage. In 1888, the first women's rights organisation was formed and was known as the Council of Women (ICW). Nevertheless, after some years, women's rights became more of a hot topic. Women's groups focused more on the suffrage movement leading to the British women-only movement founded in 1903 by Emmeline Pankhurst and known as the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU). The WSPU engaged in direct action and civil disobedience, which sparked many controversies that made headlines and incited change. The suffrage era was marked by many unfortunate events: taunting politicians, trying to storm parliament in the UK, setting bombs to damage property, and ridicule in the media. Some of the suffragette movement's key characters include the Pankhurst sisters (Emmeline, Christabel, and Sylvia), Emily Davison, and Charlotte Despard. It is essential to state that the suffragette movement was suspended in 1914 due to the First World War. Nevertheless, that did not mean that the fight was over, in 1918 and 1928 significant victories were made to have women vote and earn the same equal rights as men. What is a Suffragist? Like every political movement to spark change, there are always notable groups of people that express distaste and make an effort to improve the situation. Some do so as if they are silent warriors, while others outspokenness wins the hearts of listeners who earnestly want to help those who want to make a difference. Who were the earliest pioneers of the suffrage movement? Without a doubt, there have been many prominent figures and groups of people who fought for the rights of women in the 19th and 20th century. However, those who spoke out the loudest during the early stages of the suffrage movement are known as the suffragists. The suffragists were a group of women who organised a petition saying that all women should have the same rights as men and gathered over 1500 signatures. To receive further recognition and widespread visibility, the women approached certain men of power, two MPs known as Henry Fawcett and John Stuart Mill. Mill and Fawcett supported the suffrage movement and aided the suffragists in any way possible. Consequently, Mill drafted an amendment to the Second Reform Bill that would give women the right to vote and the same political advantages as men. Although the change was presented in 1867, a year after the signatures were handed in, parliament rejected the adjustment to the Bill, and it was defeated 196 to 73 votes. After their defeat in parliament, the suffragists were not ready to give up, they continued to put up a fight, and additional women from all walks of life became involved. For example, the London Society for Women's Suffrage was formed and, after some years, in 1897 the women's rights groups took action and formed the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS) that was lead by Millicent Fawcett, the wife of MP Henry Fawcett. It is essential to state that many women involved in the early stages of the suffrage movement, the suffragists, took a moderate line regarding women's rights, but they were tireless campaigners who earnestly wanted to observe changes. The main difference between a suffragist and a suffragette is the fact that the suffragists adopted a more peaceful and non-confrontational approach to try to win the popular vote and change women's rights. However, since the suffragists believed in changing people's opinions by displaying a respectable manner and explaining things through logical arguments and cold-hard facts, they failed to shape history for women in the late 19th century. What is a Suffragette? After the failed attempts of the suffragists in the last few decades of the 19th century, the suffragettes emerged in the early 20th century and demanded change. A women's right to vote would become a reality! As was pointed out in the previous subheading, many other female observers who wanted to incite change believed that the suffragists' methods were too "dutiful" or "civil"; therefore, popular belief was that more militant and aggressive methods were needed to see results in the suffrage movement. The motto "Deeds not Words" was adopted by the brave, bold, and fearless suffragettes. A significant change began to occur in Manchester, England in 1903 when Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters Sylvia and Christabel founded the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU). Pankhurst's movement was especially useful because it began to include working-class women all over the country. During the years leading up to the First World War in 1914, the suffragettes wanted to be heard and wanted their well-deserved petitions to become a reality; therefore, the WSPU became militant and were involved in events such as chaining themselves to railings, disrupting public meetings, and vandalising public property. Since the suffragettes were so bold and present, they were often arrested and imprisoned. For example, Emmeline Pankhurst was jailed and released 11 times. Other suffragette groups such as the WFL did not appreciate the tactics of the WSPU and preferred more peaceful yet direct lawbreaking such as blatantly displaying their distrust and frustration towards the government by refusing to pay taxes, to complete the census, and frequently participate in demonstrations. Although there were distinct suffragettes groups in the first decade of the 20th century, they were united in one thing: wanting to earn rights for women. The suffragettes printed many news articles each week to encourage other women to join the fight and openly display their frustrations towards the government's refusal to grant them equal rights. All in all, the suffragettes differ from the suffragists since their approach was much more assertive, pushy, and forceful. Nevertheless, it is essential to state that the suffragette's continuous efforts were not in vain since, after WWI, in 1918, certain women were granted the right to vote freely. Interesting Facts About the Suffragette Movement While many may believe that the suffragist movement mainly took place in the late 19th century and early 20th century in England, there are many intriguing facts that display that it was so much more. The suffrage movement took place around the world and was not only during the late 1800s early 1900s. Without further delay, the following are some exciting aspects of the suffrage movement: - In 2015, Saudi Arabia finally gave women the right to vote, making Vatican City the only place in the world where women's suffrage has been denied; some areas take more time than others! - In the United States of America, Mississippi became the last state to approve the right for women to vote in 1984. - In 1979, the United Nations named women's suffrage or women's right to vote or women's equality an absolute human right that all nations should accept and honour. - Avant-garde Finland became the first European country to grant the right to vote to women in 1906. Also, Finland was the first country to allow women to take office in parliament. - Were you under the impression that all suffragists were women or that all anti-suffragists were men? If so, you were much mistaken. It is essential to mention that numerous men were committed to suffragists and helped them earn their right. Also, various anti-suffragists include prominent women in the 19th century who expressed their distaste for the suffrage movement. The previously mentioned facts keep the suffrage movement intriguing and worthy of study. Definitions For Suffragists and Suffragettes If while reading this article, you read specific terms that you didn't quite understand, you're not alone. Since the suffrage era was a political movement that predominantly took place many decades ago, there are specific policies and vocabulary words that need to be correctly defined. What is the Second Reform Bill? The Second Reform Act was a piece of British legislation that allowed the vote for working-class men in England and Wales for the first time. What is involved in civil disobedience? When a person is involved in civil disobedience, they rebel and refuse to listen to specific laws that have been established by a government or international power. Civil disobedience is non-violent and may involve peaceful protests or nonviolent resistance. 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Anthony In the past, many injustices have robbed certain women and minorities of their dignity and rights as human beings living on planet earth. Women did not always have the respect and authorisation that they deserved; women all over the world could not vote or be involved in political parties. Thankfully times have changed, and women are viewed as equals. Nevertheless, we will consider some information about a critical movement known as the suffrage and the overall difference between suffragists and suffragettes. Background Information About the Suffrage Era The 20th century was marked by many historical events that forever changed the face of history. Mankind learned many valuable lessons from past events such as World War One, World War Two, the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Great Depression, the Russian Revolution, and the First Man on the Moon. Also, it is essential to state that the 20th century wouldn't have been the same without the suffragette movement. What is the suffrage movement? The suffrage movement, aka woman suffrage, was the struggle for the right of women to vote and run for office. The suffrage movement is part of the overall women's movement that occurred in countries all around the world; most notably the United States and the UK. Many women formed organisations to join forces and fight for women's suffrage. In 1888, the first women's rights organisation was formed and was known as the Council of Women (ICW). Nevertheless, after some years, women's rights became more of a hot topic. Women's groups focused more on the suffrage movement leading to the British women-only movement founded in 1903 by Emmeline Pankhurst and known as the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU). The WSPU engaged in direct action and civil disobedience, which sparked many controversies that made headlines and incited change. The suffrage era was marked by many unfortunate events: taunting politicians, trying to storm parliament in the UK, setting bombs to damage property, and ridicule in the media. Some of the suffragette movement's key characters include the Pankhurst sisters (Emmeline, Christabel, and Sylvia), Emily Davison, and Charlotte Despard. It is essential to state that the suffragette movement was suspended in 1914 due to the First World War. Nevertheless, that did not mean that the fight was over, in 1918 and 1928 significant victories were made to have women vote and earn the same equal rights as men. What is a Suffragist? Like every political movement to spark change, there are always notable groups of people that express distaste and make an effort to improve the situation. Some do so as if they are silent warriors, while others outspokenness wins the hearts of listeners who earnestly want to help those who want to make a difference. Who were the earliest pioneers of the suffrage movement? Without a doubt, there have been many prominent figures and groups of people who fought for the rights of women in the 19th and 20th century. However, those who spoke out the loudest during the early stages of the suffrage movement are known as the suffragists. The suffragists were a group of women who organised a petition saying that all women should have the same rights as men and gathered over 1500 signatures. To receive further recognition and widespread visibility, the women approached certain men of power, two MPs known as Henry Fawcett and John Stuart Mill. Mill and Fawcett supported the suffrage movement and aided the suffragists in any way possible. Consequently, Mill drafted an amendment to the Second Reform Bill that would give women the right to vote and the same political advantages as men. Although the change was presented in 1867, a year after the signatures were handed in, parliament rejected the adjustment to the Bill, and it was defeated 196 to 73 votes. After their defeat in parliament, the suffragists were not ready to give up, they continued to put up a fight, and additional women from all walks of life became involved. For example, the London Society for Women's Suffrage was formed and, after some years, in 1897 the women's rights groups took action and formed the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS) that was lead by Millicent Fawcett, the wife of MP Henry Fawcett. It is essential to state that many women involved in the early stages of the suffrage movement, the suffragists, took a moderate line regarding women's rights, but they were tireless campaigners who earnestly wanted to observe changes. The main difference between a suffragist and a suffragette is the fact that the suffragists adopted a more peaceful and non-confrontational approach to try to win the popular vote and change women's rights. However, since the suffragists believed in changing people's opinions by displaying a respectable manner and explaining things through logical arguments and cold-hard facts, they failed to shape history for women in the late 19th century. What is a Suffragette? After the failed attempts of the suffragists in the last few decades of the 19th century, the suffragettes emerged in the early 20th century and demanded change. A women's right to vote would become a reality! As was pointed out in the previous subheading, many other female observers who wanted to incite change believed that the suffragists' methods were too "dutiful" or "civil"; therefore, popular belief was that more militant and aggressive methods were needed to see results in the suffrage movement. The motto "Deeds not Words" was adopted by the brave, bold, and fearless suffragettes. A significant change began to occur in Manchester, England in 1903 when Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters Sylvia and Christabel founded the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU). Pankhurst's movement was especially useful because it began to include working-class women all over the country. During the years leading up to the First World War in 1914, the suffragettes wanted to be heard and wanted their well-deserved petitions to become a reality; therefore, the WSPU became militant and were involved in events such as chaining themselves to railings, disrupting public meetings, and vandalising public property. Since the suffragettes were so bold and present, they were often arrested and imprisoned. For example, Emmeline Pankhurst was jailed and released 11 times. Other suffragette groups such as the WFL did not appreciate the tactics of the WSPU and preferred more peaceful yet direct lawbreaking such as blatantly displaying their distrust and frustration towards the government by refusing to pay taxes, to complete the census, and frequently participate in demonstrations. Although there were distinct suffragettes groups in the first decade of the 20th century, they were united in one thing: wanting to earn rights for women. The suffragettes printed many news articles each week to encourage other women to join the fight and openly display their frustrations towards the government's refusal to grant them equal rights. All in all, the suffragettes differ from the suffragists since their approach was much more assertive, pushy, and forceful. Nevertheless, it is essential to state that the suffragette's continuous efforts were not in vain since, after WWI, in 1918, certain women were granted the right to vote freely. Interesting Facts About the Suffragette Movement While many may believe that the suffragist movement mainly took place in the late 19th century and early 20th century in England, there are many intriguing facts that display that it was so much more. The suffrage movement took place around the world and was not only during the late 1800s early 1900s. Without further delay, the following are some exciting aspects of the suffrage movement: - In 2015, Saudi Arabia finally gave women the right to vote, making Vatican City the only place in the world where women's suffrage has been denied; some areas take more time than others! - In the United States of America, Mississippi became the last state to approve the right for women to vote in 1984. - In 1979, the United Nations named women's suffrage or women's right to vote or women's equality an absolute human right that all nations should accept and honour. - Avant-garde Finland became the first European country to grant the right to vote to women in 1906. Also, Finland was the first country to allow women to take office in parliament. - Were you under the impression that all suffragists were women or that all anti-suffragists were men? If so, you were much mistaken. It is essential to mention that numerous men were committed to suffragists and helped them earn their right. Also, various anti-suffragists include prominent women in the 19th century who expressed their distaste for the suffrage movement. The previously mentioned facts keep the suffrage movement intriguing and worthy of study. Definitions For Suffragists and Suffragettes If while reading this article, you read specific terms that you didn't quite understand, you're not alone. Since the suffrage era was a political movement that predominantly took place many decades ago, there are specific policies and vocabulary words that need to be correctly defined. What is the Second Reform Bill? The Second Reform Act was a piece of British legislation that allowed the vote for working-class men in England and Wales for the first time. What is involved in civil disobedience? When a person is involved in civil disobedience, they rebel and refuse to listen to specific laws that have been established by a government or international power. Civil disobedience is non-violent and may involve peaceful protests or nonviolent resistance. Understanding the roles of suffragists and suffragettes is essential to garnering respect for the women who fought hard to make the world a better and more equal place.	2,131	ENGLISH	1
The French and Indian War was fought on July 9, 1755. This battle took place at Fort Duquesne, in western Pennsylvania, which was one of the many French forts in the Ohio Valley. The fight was between the English army, which was led by General Edward Braddock and the French army, which was led by Captain Beaujeau. The English army included 1,750 British regulars and 450 colonial militia. The French army, which included Indians, included less than 1,000 men. The English army and General Edward Braddock marched through the wilderness towards the French fort, Fort Duquesne. The uniforms that the British wore were easy to see through the forest. They were red and very bright. Some soldiers carried flags, some just marched and carried their guns, some were on horses, and others played music to which the army marched. General Braddock and his British soldiers believed that the right way to fight a battle was to position themselves in an open area. The French and Indians hid behind trees and rocks which was smart because more British bullets hit trees than French and Indian soldiers when the two armies fought. Ten miles from Fort Duquesne, Captain Beaujeau and his French army made a surprise attack on the English. Most of the British soldiers were killed and injured. While riding horses, General Braddock had four of them shot from under him before he himself was killed. When George Washington was 23 years old, he led the colonial militia on a retreat to safety. Two horses were shot from under him and four bullet holes were found in his coat, but Washington himself was not killed. 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This battle took place at Fort Duquesne, in western Pennsylvania, which was one of the many French forts in the Ohio Valley. The fight was between the English army, which was led by General Edward Braddock and the French army, which was led by Captain Beaujeau. The English army included 1,750 British regulars and 450 colonial militia. The French army, which included Indians, included less than 1,000 men. The English army and General Edward Braddock marched through the wilderness towards the French fort, Fort Duquesne. The uniforms that the British wore were easy to see through the forest. They were red and very bright. Some soldiers carried flags, some just marched and carried their guns, some were on horses, and others played music to which the army marched. General Braddock and his British soldiers believed that the right way to fight a battle was to position themselves in an open area. The French and Indians hid behind trees and rocks which was smart because more British bullets hit trees than French and Indian soldiers when the two armies fought. Ten miles from Fort Duquesne, Captain Beaujeau and his French army made a surprise attack on the English. Most of the British soldiers were killed and injured. While riding horses, General Braddock had four of them shot from under him before he himself was killed. When George Washington was 23 years old, he led the colonial militia on a retreat to safety. Two horses were shot from under him and four bullet holes were found in his coat, but Washington himself was not killed. Cite this article as: Schoolworkhelper Editorial Team, "The French and Indian War (1755)," in SchoolWorkHelper, 2019, https://schoolworkhelper.net/the-french-and-indian-war-1755/.	394	ENGLISH	1
Members of William Bradford’s congregation in Scrooby, Nottinghamshire, began to be persecuted for their Separatist belief. They attempted to leave England for the Netherlands but were caught and arrested – it was illegal to emigrate without permission. Members of William Bradford’s Scrooby congregation managed to leave England without being detected and reached Leiden in the Netherlands where they were able to practise their religion. John Carver, a rich London merchant who had fled to the Netherlands to escape religious persecutions, began working to get support to found a new colony in America. Church elder, William Brewster, was arrested in Leiden by English authorities after he had published a criticism of King James I William Bradford’s congregation in the Netherlands managed to gain a land patent from the Plymouth Company. The patent granted them land at the mouth of the Hudson River. They approached the Merchant Adventurers company for a loan to finance the venture which would be repaid from the profits from the new plantation. John Carver chartered two ships the Mayflower and the Speedwell to take the settlers to the New World. The Mayflower was purchased in London and would be captained by Christopher Jones while Captain Reynolds would sail the Speedwell from the Netherlands. 1620 (22nd July) The emigrants boarded the Speedwell in the Dutch port of Delfshaven and set sail for Southampton. 1620 (late July) In Southampton the Leiden congregation were joined by another group of religious dissenters, ‘The Strangers’ which included Myles Standish and Christopher Martin and Stephen Hopkins. They were joined by a number of skilled people who had been recruited by the Merchant Adventurers to help found the new colony. 1620 (15th August) The Mayflower, carrying 90 settlers and the Speedwell carrying 30 people set sail from Southampton bound for Jamestown in the New World. These settlers later became known as pilgrims. They took with then salted meat, dried fish, biscuits, vegetable roots, seeds and beer. However, after going a short distance, the Speedwell was found to have developed a leak and both ships were forced to put in to Plymouth for repairs. 1620 (16th September) After deciding that it was too costly to repair the Speedwell, The Mayflower left Plymouth and set sail for Virginia, North America. On board were 102 pilgrims and 30 crew. 1620 (9th November) Land was sighted and the Mayflower dropped anchor off Cape Cod, Massachusetts, around 500 miles north of their intended destination. 1620 (11th November) This document established how the new colony should be managed and was signed by all male settlers. John Carver was chosen to be governor for the first year. 1620 (15th November) Sixteen men, led by Myles Standish, rowed to shore to explore the region. but determined that the land was not suitable for a settlement. They returned to the ship and set sail again. 1620 (20th November) A son, Peregrin, was born to Susanna White. He was the first child born to the pilgrims in New England. 1620 (6th December) A group of settlers led by William Bradford who were exploring Plymouth Bay in a small boat were caught in a storm. They managed to land on Clark’s island and survive the storm. 1620 (7th December) William Bradford’s wife, Dorothy, fell from the Mayflower and drowned. 1620 (8th December) A group of settlers who had gone ashore looking for food were attacked by a group of Nauset Indians. The settlers managed to escape and decided against settling in that location. This is often referred to as ‘the first encounter’. 1620 (16th December) The Mayflower reached Plymouth Harbour and dropped anchor. They began exploring the area looking for a suitable site for their settlement. 1620 (20th December) The settlers decided to place their settlement in the village of Patuxet which they renamed Plymouth. It had been determined in the Mayflower Compact that each man would build his own shelter and contribute towards the building of a town hall. Due to the fact that it was winter they hurriedly built temporary shelters to see them through the winter. 1620 (23rd December) It had been determined in the Mayflower Compact that each man would build his own shelter and contribute towards the building of a town hall. Work now began on construction of shelters for the settlers. The work was carried out by the men while the women and children remained aboard the Mayflower. 1621 (8th January) The settlers finally completed their Town Hall. 1621 (13th January) John Carver was ill and bedridden. He managed to escape when the thatched roof of his home caught fire. 1621 (late January) 45 of the settlers had died during the winter and as a result of sickness and the weather only 7 houses had been constructed. Four common houses had been completed and the settlers began unloading provisions from the Mayflower and storing them in the common houses. 1621 (17th February) Myles Standish was appointed the first commander of the Plymouth Plantation. 1621 (16th March) The settlers were shown how to farm the land by a native American called Samoset. In return he asked that the men helped them fight off a rival tribe and arranged for a meeting between his tribe and the settlers. 1621 (1st April) The settlers signed a treaty with the Wampanoag Indians. 1621 (5th April) The Mayflower left Plymouth Harbour and returned to England. 1621 (mid April) Governor John Carver died. He was replaced as governor by William Bradford. 1621 (late July) A young boy named John Billington was lost in the woods near the settlement. After it was learned that he had been found by the Nauset Indians, the pilgrims went to rescue John. They agreed to compensate the Indians for goods that the boy had taken and agreed a peace at the same time. The pilgrims celebrated their first successful harvest. 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They attempted to leave England for the Netherlands but were caught and arrested – it was illegal to emigrate without permission. Members of William Bradford’s Scrooby congregation managed to leave England without being detected and reached Leiden in the Netherlands where they were able to practise their religion. John Carver, a rich London merchant who had fled to the Netherlands to escape religious persecutions, began working to get support to found a new colony in America. Church elder, William Brewster, was arrested in Leiden by English authorities after he had published a criticism of King James I William Bradford’s congregation in the Netherlands managed to gain a land patent from the Plymouth Company. The patent granted them land at the mouth of the Hudson River. They approached the Merchant Adventurers company for a loan to finance the venture which would be repaid from the profits from the new plantation. John Carver chartered two ships the Mayflower and the Speedwell to take the settlers to the New World. The Mayflower was purchased in London and would be captained by Christopher Jones while Captain Reynolds would sail the Speedwell from the Netherlands. 1620 (22nd July) The emigrants boarded the Speedwell in the Dutch port of Delfshaven and set sail for Southampton. 1620 (late July) In Southampton the Leiden congregation were joined by another group of religious dissenters, ‘The Strangers’ which included Myles Standish and Christopher Martin and Stephen Hopkins. They were joined by a number of skilled people who had been recruited by the Merchant Adventurers to help found the new colony. 1620 (15th August) The Mayflower, carrying 90 settlers and the Speedwell carrying 30 people set sail from Southampton bound for Jamestown in the New World. These settlers later became known as pilgrims. They took with then salted meat, dried fish, biscuits, vegetable roots, seeds and beer. However, after going a short distance, the Speedwell was found to have developed a leak and both ships were forced to put in to Plymouth for repairs. 1620 (16th September) After deciding that it was too costly to repair the Speedwell, The Mayflower left Plymouth and set sail for Virginia, North America. On board were 102 pilgrims and 30 crew. 1620 (9th November) Land was sighted and the Mayflower dropped anchor off Cape Cod, Massachusetts, around 500 miles north of their intended destination. 1620 (11th November) This document established how the new colony should be managed and was signed by all male settlers. John Carver was chosen to be governor for the first year. 1620 (15th November) Sixteen men, led by Myles Standish, rowed to shore to explore the region. but determined that the land was not suitable for a settlement. They returned to the ship and set sail again. 1620 (20th November) A son, Peregrin, was born to Susanna White. He was the first child born to the pilgrims in New England. 1620 (6th December) A group of settlers led by William Bradford who were exploring Plymouth Bay in a small boat were caught in a storm. They managed to land on Clark’s island and survive the storm. 1620 (7th December) William Bradford’s wife, Dorothy, fell from the Mayflower and drowned. 1620 (8th December) A group of settlers who had gone ashore looking for food were attacked by a group of Nauset Indians. The settlers managed to escape and decided against settling in that location. This is often referred to as ‘the first encounter’. 1620 (16th December) The Mayflower reached Plymouth Harbour and dropped anchor. They began exploring the area looking for a suitable site for their settlement. 1620 (20th December) The settlers decided to place their settlement in the village of Patuxet which they renamed Plymouth. It had been determined in the Mayflower Compact that each man would build his own shelter and contribute towards the building of a town hall. Due to the fact that it was winter they hurriedly built temporary shelters to see them through the winter. 1620 (23rd December) It had been determined in the Mayflower Compact that each man would build his own shelter and contribute towards the building of a town hall. Work now began on construction of shelters for the settlers. The work was carried out by the men while the women and children remained aboard the Mayflower. 1621 (8th January) The settlers finally completed their Town Hall. 1621 (13th January) John Carver was ill and bedridden. He managed to escape when the thatched roof of his home caught fire. 1621 (late January) 45 of the settlers had died during the winter and as a result of sickness and the weather only 7 houses had been constructed. Four common houses had been completed and the settlers began unloading provisions from the Mayflower and storing them in the common houses. 1621 (17th February) Myles Standish was appointed the first commander of the Plymouth Plantation. 1621 (16th March) The settlers were shown how to farm the land by a native American called Samoset. In return he asked that the men helped them fight off a rival tribe and arranged for a meeting between his tribe and the settlers. 1621 (1st April) The settlers signed a treaty with the Wampanoag Indians. 1621 (5th April) The Mayflower left Plymouth Harbour and returned to England. 1621 (mid April) Governor John Carver died. He was replaced as governor by William Bradford. 1621 (late July) A young boy named John Billington was lost in the woods near the settlement. After it was learned that he had been found by the Nauset Indians, the pilgrims went to rescue John. They agreed to compensate the Indians for goods that the boy had taken and agreed a peace at the same time. The pilgrims celebrated their first successful harvest. This was the basis for ‘Thanksgiving’ which is celebrated in the United States every year on 23rd November.	1,332	ENGLISH	1
Robert F. Kennedy and the 82 Days That Inspired AmericaHistorians/History tags: RFK, Kennedys In 1968, America was a wounded nation. The wounds were moral ones, and the Vietnam War and three summers of inner- city riots had inflicted them on the national soul, challenging Americans’ belief that they were a uniquely noble and honorable people. Americans saw news footage from South Vietnam, such as the 1965 film of U.S. Marines setting fire to thatched huts in the village of Cam Ne with cigarette lighters and flamethrowers as women and children ran for safety, and realized they were capable of atrocities once considered the province of their enemies. They saw smoke rising over Washington, D.C., during the riots following the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., soldiers with machine guns guarding the Capitol, federal troops patrolling the streets of American cities for the first time since the Civil War, and asked themselves how this could be happening in their City Upon a Hill. Nineteen sixty- eight was an election year, and the presidential candidates all promised to win or negotiate an end to the Vietnam War and to pacify America’s cities with new social programs, draconian law enforcement, or both. But only one candidate, Senator Robert F. Kennedy of New York, recognized the moral wounds and promised to heal them. Days after announcing his candidacy on March 16, he accused President Lyndon Johnson’s administration of abandoning “the generous impulses that are the soul of this nation” and said he was running to offer “a way in which the people themselves can lead the way back to those ideals which are the source of national strength and generosity and compassion of deed.” During his campaign for the Democratic nomination, Kennedy told Americans that they were individually responsible for what their government had done in their name in Vietnam and for what it had failed to do at home for minorities and the poor. He said they could not acquit themselves of this responsibility simply by voting for a new president and new policies. Instead, they would have to participate in the healing process. Because Kennedy had managed his late brother’s 1960 presidential campaign and served in his cabinet as attorney general, he understood that following a crude and divisive campaign with a highminded presidency would be difficult, and healing a morally wounded nation after running an immoral campaign would be impossible. Because he understood this, his campaign is a template for how a candidate should run for the White House in a time of moral crisis. Since 1968, the word hope has become the oratorical equivalent of an American flag lapel pin, a de rigueur rhetorical flourish amounting to a vague promise of better days. But the hope that Robert Kennedy offered was specific: that Americans’ belief in their integrity and decency could be restored. His assassination on June 5, eighty- two days after he had announced his candidacy, represented not just the death of another Kennedy or of a promising young leader, but the death of this hope. This explains why the most dramatic display of public grief for an American citizen who had never been elected to the presidency unfolded on June 8, 1968, when a twenty- one- car funeral train, its engine draped in black bunting, carried Kennedy’s body from his funeral in New York to his burial in Washington. Trains carrying the remains of Presidents Abraham Lincoln and Franklin Roosevelt traveled at a mournful pace, passing bonfires, bands, and weeping crowds, and stopping for tributes. But Kennedy’s train was scheduled to travel nonstop and at a normal rate of speed. Crowds were expected, but no one imagined that on a steamy Saturday afternoon two million people would head for the tracks, wading through marshes, hiking across meadows, and slithering under fences, filling tenement balconies, clambering onto factory roofs, standing in junkyards and cemeteries, peering down from bridges, viaducts, and bluffs, placing 100,000 coins on the tracks, waving hand- lettered goodbye bobby signs, and forging a 226- mile- long chain of grief and despair. Political reporter Theodore White, one of the 1,146 passengers, wrote, “It was only, however, when the funeral train that was to bear him to Washington emerged from the tunnel under the Hudson that one could grasp what kind of a man he was and what he had meant to Americans.” Once the train crossed into New Jersey, mourners jamming station platforms and spilling onto northbound tracks forced the engineer to reduce his speed. After a northbound express killed two people standing on the tracks in Elizabeth, the Penn Central halted all other traffic on the line and the funeral train continued to Washington at half speed. Inside the coaches, some of Kennedy’s ten children played with balloons in the dining car while their mother, her black veil pulled back over her head, walked through the coaches, greeting mourners. Passengers ate in the dining cars, drank until the bar car ran dry, or remained determinedly sober. They laughed, cried, or sat in stony silence, found this impromptu wake distressing or a fitting tribute. But they all stared out the windows and saw their grief reflected in the faces of people whom they usually flew over or sped past. Looking out those windows were many of the people responsible for the political and cultural life of the nation during the years since John F. Kennedy’s inauguration: New York socialites and Massachusetts backroom pols, Hollywood celebrities and media heavyweights, star athletes and famous writers, architects and opponents of the Vietnam War, men who had served in John Kennedy’s administration and might have served in Bobby’s. There was Charles Evers, whom Bobby Kennedy had comforted after his brother, civil rights leader Medgar Evers, was assassinated in 1963, and who was now thinking about Bobby: “Where, dear God, is the man to take his place?” There was Coretta Scott King, whom Bobby had comforted after her husband was assassinated in April of that year, and Jackie Kennedy, who had told former White House aide Arthur Schlesinger that she feared “the same thing” that had happened to her husband would happen to Bobby because “there is so much hatred in this country, and more people hate Bobby than hated Jack.” Passengers stared out the windows and saw men in undershirts, sport shirts, uniforms, and suits: crying, saluting, standing at attention, and holding their hard hats over their hearts. They saw women in madras shorts, house dresses, and Sunday dresses: weeping, kneeling, covering their faces, and holding up children as if telling them, “You look at Robert Kennedy, and that’s the way you should lead your life.” They saw people who were also mourning Martin Luther King Jr. and John F. Kennedy, although they may not have known it, and people who were weeping because they sensed that this signified the end of something, although they were not sure what. They saw some of the same derelict factories, creaky tenements, shuttered stores, and crimebattered neighborhoods that anyone traveling this route today still sees, but might not be seeing had Robert Kennedy lived. Even after the air- conditioning failed and the food ran out, some passengers were saying, “I hope this train ride never ends,” because they knew this was the last time that Bobby Kennedy would bring them together. They wept when high school bands played “Taps” as the train slid through stations at Trenton and New Brunswick, and when mourners in the Philadelphia and Baltimore stations sang Kennedy’s favorite hymn, “The Battle Hymn of the Republic”; they wept when police bands played “The Star- Spangled Banner” and “America the Beautiful,” and again when they passed diamonds where Little Leaguers stood at attention along the baselines, heads bowed and caps held over their hearts. Because anyone who owned an American flag had flown it or brought it, they saw flags flying at half- staff in front of factories and schools, dipped by American Legion honor guards, and waved by Cub Scouts. Because anyone owning a uniform had worn it, they saw policemen in gold braid and white gloves, fire companies standing at attention next to their trucks, and veterans in Eisenhower jackets and overseas caps snapping salutes. They saw the kind of white working- class backlash voters who had supported former Alabama governor George Wallace’s 1964 candidacy for the Democratic nomination, and would vote again for Wallace or Republican Richard Nixon in November, although until four days before many had planned to vote for Robert Kennedy. Today, these whites had not only turned out to mourn a politician who was an acknowledged champion of black Americans, and who had condemned an American war as “deeply wrong”; they had decided that the most fitting way to do this was to wear a uniform and wave a flag. “Marvelous crowds,” Arthur Schlesinger told Kenny O’Donnell, a former White House aide to John Kennedy who had been Bobby Kennedy’s Harvard classmate. “Yes,” O’Donnell replied. “But what are they good for?” But Adalbert de Segonzac of France Soir noticed that they were the same kind of people—he called them “small white people”—who had cheered Kennedy in the working- class towns of northern Indiana. They may not have been good for anything now, he thought, but they proved something, and he opened his article about the funeral train, “Robert Kennedy won the American election today.” Richard Harwood of the Washington Post saw “trembling nuns” and “adoring children,” reported that blacks cried most, and concluded, “It may not have had the grandeur of the last train ride Abraham Lincoln took through the weeping countryside a century ago. But no one could be sure of that.” Not since Lincoln had black Americans embraced a white politician as passionately and completely. They, as well as many whites, feared that Robert Kennedy’s assassination, like Lincoln’s, had eliminated the only leader who could heal and unify a wounded nation. Some of the spectators who broke into “The Battle Hymn of the Republic” as the train passed through Baltimore and Philadelphia may have been making the Kennedy–Lincoln connection as well; those gathered at the Lincoln Memorial who flicked on lighters, held up matches, and sang “The Battle Hymn” as his cortege paused en route to Arlington certainly were. NBC commentator David Brinkley called Kennedy “the only white politician left who could talk to both races” and compared his assassination to Lincoln’s, and as images of Kennedy’s funeral train appeared on the television screen, another newsman read an account of Lincoln’s funeral train, saying, “The people are lined up along the tracks . . . particularly black people. They have built bonfires for miles, and the train is proceeding within the parallel lines of bonfires. . . . And so the train bearing the body of Abraham Lincoln reached Washington.” After the accident at Elizabeth, the train traveled so slowly that its passengers noticed details about the people outside their windows. They saw a long- haired girl on a horse, five nuns standing on tiptoes in a yellow pickup truck, a crowd of young black militants with Afros holding up clenched fists, white policemen cradling black children in their arms, a family with a sign reading the gebharts are sad, and five black boys in church clothes, each holding a rose. AP reporter Joe Mohbat and Jack Miller, a prosecutor who had served as chief of the Criminal Division in Bobby Kennedy’s Justice Department, broke down and wept when the train passed a line of saluting schoolchildren, a reminder of John F. Kennedy Jr. saluting his father’s casket. Gertrude Wilson of the Amsterdam News put her hands against the window and sobbed at the sight of a black woman in Baltimore clutching a hand- lettered sign that said HOPE. Sylvia Wright of Life remembered a wedding party standing in a Delaware meadow. The bridesmaids held the hems of their pink and green dresses in one hand, their bouquets in the other. As the last car carrying Kennedy’s coffin passed, they extended their arms and tossed their flowers against its side. After seeing this, and the solemn Boy Scouts, black women prostrate with grief, and brawny white men gripping tiny flags in ham- hock hands as tears rolled down their cheeks, Wright asked herself the question that has become the silent descant of most everything written or said about Bobby Kennedy: “What did he have that he could do this to people?” On the twentieth anniversary of Robert Kennedy’s assassination, author Jack Newfield called it “a wound that hurts more, not less, as time passes.” On its twenty- fifth anniversary, Judi Cornelius, a Native American woman who had arranged Kennedy’s visit to her reservation, visited his grave at Arlington only to discover that, she said, “My heart ached just like it had two and a half de cades earlier, and some wounds to [our] tender dreams never heal.” On its thirtieth, former aide Peter Edelman told a reporter, “I had a dream for years that he [Kennedy] came back alive. Actually, I still do.” And a year after that, New York Times reporter Anthony Lewis said, “The year after he died, I wrote a column about him. ‘Time,’ I wrote, ‘does not diminish the sense that life without him is incomplete.’ Thirty- one years later, I still feel that way.” What did he have? Congressman John Lewis, who had been on Kennedy’s campaign staff, asks himself “What would Bobby do?” before casting a difficult vote in the House of Representatives. Kennedy’s former press secretary, Frank Mankiewicz, who had announced Kennedy’s death to reporters at Good Samaritan Hospital in Los Angeles, saying, “Senator Robert Francis Kennedy died at 1:44 a.m. today, June 6, 1968. . . . He was forty- two years old,” remembers him whenever he hears “The trumpet shall sound” aria in the Messiah, “because Bob Kennedy was the trumpet, and he’s still sounding for me.” Doug German, a young Kennedy volunteer in Nebraska, says he abandoned party politics afterward because “The music died for me.” John Bartlow Martin, who wrote speeches for Adlai Stevenson and John Kennedy before writing them for Bobby, went into seclusion at his home in rural Michigan, writing in his diary, “It’s over, the brief bright dream. Last time they let us have it for three years [ JFK’s presidency]. . . . Now I feel nothing but bleak despair. . . . [Before] there was the thought, ‘well, there’s always Bob: Now there isn’t.’ ” Jerry Bruno, Kennedy’s hard- boiled advance man, claims the politics were never the same for him, adding, “It was like all of our lives just stopped.” Life photographer Bill Eppridge never asked to cover another campaign, and says, “When you get to the pinnacle what else is there? It would have been like going back and shooting weddings.” And whenever Eppridge visits the Vietnam War memorial, he finds himself looking at the names of servicemen killed after January 15, 1969, when Kennedy might have been inaugurated, wondering how many would still be alive. Attorney Jim Tolan, who had prepared the way for—in political parlance, “advanced”—many of Kennedy’s appearances that spring, leaves the room whenever images of him appear in a televi ion documentary. “I fell in love with Robert Kennedy, with his goodness,” he says. “Listen, I loved that man.” Associated Press correspondent Joe Mohbat, who spent more time in close physical proximity to him than any reporter that spring, lost his taste for journalism and became a lawyer. “I can still see him with his shirt sleeves rolled up, and his hairy muscular forearms,” he says. “One lid covers more of one eye than the other—a kind of droopy lid—and there is an absolute intensity about him, even when he’s joking. There will never be anyone like him. History won’t allow it, the media won’t allow it, the blogs won’t allow it.” He stops before adding in a choked voice, “You really want to know what Bob Kennedy was? He was fucking beautiful.” What did he have? Those still mourning him usually mention Hugh McDonald, his twenty- nine- year- old assistant press secretary, perhaps because McDonald’s grief was an extreme version of their own. He had dashed into the pantry of the Ambassador Hotel seconds after the shots and handed his suit jacket to bodyguard Bill Barry, who used it to stanch the blood flowing from the wound in Kennedy’s head. McDonald wept as he removed Kennedy’s shoes to make him more comfortable. Later, he wandered the corridors of the Ambassador Hotel and Good Samaritan Hospital, clutching a pair of size 81⁄2 black shoes with arch supports, wearing a blank expression, and saying, “I’ve got his shoes . . . I’ve got his shoes.” Because McDonald had been in charge of checking the credentials of those entering the room where Kennedy was speaking, he blamed himself for admitting the assassin. He suffered from shock and depression, ended up divorced, attempted suicide, and died in a Los Angeles rooming house in March 1978, ten years to the month after Robert Kennedy had announced his candidacy. What did he have? Director John Frankenheimer, who drove Kennedy to the Ambassador Hotel on the night of the assassination, developed a drinking problem that crippled his career for two decades. Olympic decathlon champion Rafer Johnson, who was steps away when Kennedy was shot, suffered months of paranoia, using public telephones and fictitious names to communicate with friends because he believed he was next. Singer Rosemary Clooney, who was also at the Ambassador that night, insisted that Kennedy had survived and his death was an elaborate hoax. She suffered a nervous breakdown and was institutionalized. On the night of Kennedy’s funeral, singer Bobby Darin remained by his grave in Arlington until dawn, sleeping on the ground and claiming to have experienced what he called a “metaphysical illumination” that had transformed him into a “new me, a better me . . . striving for only one thing: to help the world change toward goodness.” What did he have? Many are haunted by Kennedy’s phantom presidency. Two decades after his death, Ralph Bartlow Martin wrote, “I have no doubt at all that if nominated he [Kennedy] would have been elected. And if elected, a great President, maybe greater than his brother. But they would have killed him.” As Kennedy lay dying, Jack Newfield told John Lewis, “I can feel history slipping through my fingers.” Four decades later, Lewis says, “I thought that if this one man was elected president, he could move us closer to what many of us in the movement called ‘The Loving Community.’ ” Former Kennedy aide Peter Edelman still believes that his presidency “would have influenced the tone and direction of American politics for de cades.” Edwin Guthman, who worked in the Kennedy Justice Department, writes, “To know anything about him is to know that had he lived and won in 1968, he would have been a great President.” Look correspondent Warren Rogers told an interviewer in 1997 that his presidency would have left “a far more decent, a far gentler and less uncouth country than we are today,” and the political commentator Mark Shields, who worked for him in the Nebraska primary, says, “I’ll go to my grave believing Robert Kennedy would have been the best President of my lifetime.” Ask Shields, Mankiewicz, and other former Kennedy aides what his presidency would have meant, and you invariably hear the word different: “This would be an entirely different country,” “Everything would be different,” or words to that effect. Ask how things would be different, and you hear two narratives: one describing Kennedy’s presidency and the other, its legacy. Imagining his presidency is easy because, as even his enemies would concede, he meant what he said. So it is likely that he would have negotiated a settlement to the Vietnam War soon after his inauguration, saving the lives of the two million Vietnamese and twenty thousand American servicemen killed during the Nixon administration. Because he would not have bombed Cambodia, America would have escaped the trauma of Kent State and Jackson State, and Cambodia would probably have escaped the murderous Pol Pot regime. The Watergate would be just another apartment building, and America would have avoided the disillusionment and cynicism following that scandal. Had Kennedy won the presidency, young and minority Americans would have had a champion in the White House. The riots and protests marking Nixon’s first year would have been blunted, and Kennedy might have convinced Americans that real “immorality” meant poverty, racial discrimination, and an unnecessary war. Had Kennedy beaten Nixon in 1968, both parties might not have embraced—or at least not so readily—the sound bites, focus groups, stage- managed appearances, screened questions, bogus spontaneity, and other corrosive hallmarks of Nixon’s successful campaign. And had Kennedy won, then the guiding principle of Nixon’s campaign as spelled out in his secret 1968 manual—“The central point of scheduling is that the campaign is symbolic, i.e. it is not what the candidate actually does as much as what it appears he does [that matters]”—might have been discredited rather than emulated. Frank Mankiewicz defines what a Kennedy presidency would have meant: “This would be a totally different country, not like it is today, with the political machinery grinding against itself, sending off sparks.” But what kind of oil was Kennedy proposing to pour into the jammed political machinery of the time? Might it still be effective? What did he have? The obvious answer to Sylvia Wright’s question is that he had his last name and his position as the oldest surviving brother of a beloved and martyred president. But even this is insufficient to explain the intensity and longevity of the grief following his assassination, nor are his youth, eloquence, and good looks, although they made his death more heartbreaking. They are not enough because had he been assassinated or died of natural causes before running for president, or in the early days of his campaign, it is inconceivable that two million people would have turned out for his funeral train, or that there would ever have been such a train, or that his phantom presidency would remain so haunting. Had his assassination not been preceded by his eighty two-day campaign, it is also inconceivable that 92 percent of the residents of Harlem would have claimed to be mourning him more than JFK, or that Norman Mailer would have admitted loving him “by five times more in death than life,” or that at his funeral tears would have coursed down the cheeks of both Tom Hayden of the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) and Mayor Richard Daley of Chicago, two men at opposite ends of the Democratic Party’s political spectrum, or that more photographs of him would still be hanging in congressional offices than of any other former member of the House or Senate, or so it is said. It is Robert Kennedy’s campaign that explains the grief, reveals how he would have freed America’s jammed political machinery, and answers Wright’s question and its obvious corollary: What did he do during those eighty- two days? His campaign explains why authorities assumed that his assassination would spark riots in black neighborhoods equal to those following the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., why the Pentagon’s new riot- monitoring unit, the Army Directorate for Civil Disturbances Planning and Operations, immediately went on a state of alert, and why almost twenty- five thousand California National Guard troops were readied to move into the ghettos. The military was not alone in forecasting a violent reaction. Two weeks earlier, Tom Wicker had written in the New York Times, “The people of the ghetto are volatile and suspicious and militant; if they believe Kennedy has been ‘dealt out’ by the Democrats their response could be angry and even violent.” Many of Kennedy’s black supporters had also expected the ghettos to explode as they had for Dr. King. They seemed almost embarrassed that they had not, and explained that their people had still been reeling from the King assassination and were too shattered to lash out again. Kennedy’s campaign also explains his popularity with black Americans, why some called him a “blue- eyed soul brother,” why Charles Evers’s reaction to his assassination was wailing, “My God! My God! What are my people going to do?” and why John Lewis responded by, he says, “crying, sobbing, heaving as if something had been busted open inside,” even though he had not wept for Martin Luther King Jr. His campaign explains why many of the same Midwestern farmers, factory workers, and white ethnics who would vote Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, and both Bushes into the White House, voted for Robert Kennedy in the Democratic primaries, and why Fred Papert, who managed his advertising campaign, is justified in believing that millions of Americans would have turned out for his funeral train, even if it had traveled through the Deep South or Far West, “all those areas where everybody thinks people are different, ultra- conservative, and reactionary.” One of the reporters covering Kennedy’s campaign called it a “huge, joyous adventure.” Revisiting it can also be a joyous experience because no credible candidate since has run so passionately or recklessly, or without the customary and ever- expanding carapace of consultants, pollsters, spinners, and question- screeners. Nor has anyone put poverty at the center of a presidential campaign, except John Edwards, excited minorities and the poor as much, been trusted as much by both blacks and working- class whites, or criticized the American people so brazenly. Try to imagine a mainstream politician saying, as Kennedy did in a New York Times essay, “Once we thought, with Jefferson, that we were the ‘best hope’ of all mankind. But now we seem to rely only on our wealth and power,” or, as he did on Meet the Press: “I am dissatisfied with our society. I suppose I am dissatisfied with my country.” You cannot because today’s thin- skinned electorate would never tolerate such criticism. Revisiting Robert Kennedy’s campaign can be heartbreaking because it resembles a kind of slow- motion suicide, and because one knows who, and what, is coming next; not just the second assassination of a Kennedy, but Talking Points, Red and Blue States, That depends on what the meaning of “is” is, and Bring ’em on! Revisiting it is also tricky because he was at his best during those eighty- two days. Author Wilfrid Sheed, who worked for one of Kennedy’s rivals for the Democratic nomination, Senator Eugene McCarthy of Minnesota, would later concede that Kennedy’s campaign had been “what his life had been about all along, and that his death henceforth would serve principally to direct our eyes to it,” adding, “For those few weeks at least, Bobby became a very great man, transcending his own nature and even some of our quibbles with it.” One of Kennedy’s friends told biographer William Shannon, “You never know which Bobby Kennedy you’re going to meet,” and Shannon, writing about Kennedy while he was still alive, called him “rude, restless, impatient,” but also “brilliant, inspiring, forceful.” It was this second Bobby Kennedy who campaigned for the Democratic nomination that spring. Because Kennedy was at his best during his last campaign, one is tempted to highlight his missteps to avoid appearing too partisan. Hays Gorey of Time said that some reporters covering the campaign did just that, admitting, “At some point it sank in on most of us that there was something real and good and decent about the candidate. Yet we had to regard his every move as suspect or we weren’t being good reporters.” Bobby Kennedy was no saint. He had a quick temper, and he could be cruel to those he disliked or who had disappointed him. He had worked for Senator Joseph McCarthy’s notorious Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations in 1954 and retained an affection for McCarthy longer than was seemly. He had been a tough and merciless interrogator while serving as chief counsel to a Senate committee investigating the penetration of labor unions by organized crime, and a demanding and hard- boiled manager of JFK’s 1960 presidential campaign. One of JFK’s aides told Washington Post reporter Richard Harwood that there had been a “good Bobby and a bad Bobby” in 1960, and the bad one resembled “a petulant baseball player who strikes out in the clutch and kicks the bat boy.” But Harwood noted that that side of Bobby Kennedy was not in evidence in 1968. Instead, “What came out most . . . was his gentleness,” he said. JFK adviser Ted Sorensen remembered the Bobby Kennedy of the 1950s being “militant, aggressive, intolerant, opinionated, somewhat shallow in his convictions . . . [and] more like his father than his brother [JFK],” but believed that by 1968 he had transformed himself, abandoning his hard line on the Cold War, repudiating the Vietnam War, and becoming deeply troubled by poverty and racial injustice. While serving on these Senate committees in the 1950s and as his brother’s attorney general and principal adviser in the early 1960s, Bobby Kennedy had become acquainted with the government’s darkest secrets. He knew about President Kennedy’s adulteries and America’s involvement in the coup resulting in the assassination of South Vietnamese president Ngo Dinh Diem. He had investigated and interrogated union bosses corrupted by the Mafia, approved and encouraged CIA attempts to assassinate Fidel Castro, authorized wiretaps on Martin Luther King Jr.’s telephones in the mistaken belief that two of his associates were Communists, and turned a blind eye to attempts by FBI chief J. Edgar Hoover to intimidate and discredit King. But because he knew all this, he also knew more about the inner workings of the government and the White House than any presidential candidate in history, and he ran for that office with eyes wide open, understanding the risks he was assuming and hatreds he was unleashing by becoming the second Kennedy in a decade to seek it. Although he had only served in the Senate for three years, he was more qualified to assume the presidency than John Kennedy had been in 1960. He had been an excellent attorney general—some thought the best in history—and had served as a kind of assistant president, witnessing the Bay of Pigs debacle firsthand, playing a pivotal role in resolving the Cuban Missile Crisis, conducting clandestine negotiations with Soviet diplomats, and supervising the CIA. Since his brother’s assassination in Dallas he had become more contemplative and sensitive, and felt more guilty over his role in embroiling America in the Vietnam War, and his brother’s choice of Lyndon Johnson as vice president. There was also, for him, the possibility that something he had done—perhaps his obsession with eliminating Fidel Castro, or the enemies he made by pursuing mobsters and corrupt union officials—had prompted his brother’s assassination. Revisiting Robert Kennedy ’ s campaign has never been more timely. In 1968, young men who could not afford to pay for college were drafted and died in disproportionate numbers in Vietnam. Four decades later, poor young men and women volunteer for military ser vice to earn the money for college tuition and die in disproportionate numbers in Iraq. In 1968, as now, an unpopular president was waging a controversial war that had divided Americans and poisoned the nation’s relations with its allies. What Kennedy said about that war could be said verbatim about Iraq: For it is long past time to ask: what is this war doing to us? Of course it is costing us money . . . but that is the smallest price we pay. The cost is in our young men, the tens of thousands of their lives cut off forever. The cost is in our world position—in neutrals and allies alike, every day more baffled and estranged from a policy they cannot understand. There is a failing of generosity and compassion. There is an unwillingness to sacrifice. We cannot continue to deny and postpone the demands of our own people while spending billions in the name of the freedom for others. We have an ally in name only. We support a government without supporters. Without the effort of American arms, that government would not last a day. The front pages of our newspapers show photographs of American soldiers torturing prisoners. During his campaign, Kennedy spoke of a nation where “the affluent are getting more affluent and the poor are getting poorer,” a situation that the late journalist David Halberstam summarized in a sentence that could have been written four de cades later: “The rich were getting richer in America and the poor were getting poorer and by and large the rich were white and the poor were black.” In 1968, riots following the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. highlighted the chasm between white and black Americans. Thirty- seven years later, Hurricane Katrina had a similar effect. On November 15, 2005, some former passengers on Kennedy’s funeral train gathered with several hundred others at the Capitol for a “memorial commemoration” of Robert Kennedy’s eightieth birthday. (Had he been celebrating in person, he would have been a year younger than former presidents Jimmy Carter and George H. W. Bush). One searches in vain for similar events marking the landmark birthdays of presidents such as Franklin D. Roosevelt and John F. Kennedy, but if anyone considered it unusual to be marking Robert Kennedy’s eightieth birthday thirty- seven years after his death, they remained silent. Instead, the unspoken assumption was that his presidential campaign had never mattered so much, and the unspoken question hovering over John Kerry, Hillary Clinton, Barack Obama, and others offering tributes was which one had the courage to raise the issues that he had, and campaign as he did. Following speeches and the presentation of the annual Robert F. Kennedy Human Rights Award, a video was screened showing the devastation in New Orleans following Hurricane Katrina. Its only sound track was a speech that Kennedy had delivered at the University of Kansas on March 18, 1968, two days after announcing his candidacy. And so, as black residents of New Orleans waded through their flooded streets, Kennedy could be heard saying, “I have seen these other Americans—I have seen children in Mississippi starving. . . . I don’t think that’s acceptable in the United States of America.” As they stood on rooftops, waving at helicopters, he said, “If we believe that we, as Americans, are bound together by a common concern for each other, then an urgent national priority is upon us. We must end the disgrace of this other America.” As they milled outside the convention center, he said, “But even if we act to erase material poverty there is another great task. It is to confront the poverty of satisfaction—a lack of purpose and dignity—that inflicts us all. Too much and too long we seem to have surrendered community excellence and community values in the mere accumulation of material things.” The stars may never be aligned as they were in 1968, and Americans may wait de cades for another year as pivotal, or for another eighty- two days that become the axis upon which such a pivotal year turns. Or perhaps not. There are things that Robert Kennedy did and said during his campaign that only the brother of a martyred president could have done and said, but there are others that another candidate could easily do and say, if the American people demanded them. John Nolan, who scheduled many of Kennedy’s appearances that spring, believes, “What he did was not really that mystical. All it requires is someone who knows himself, and has some courage.” comments powered by Disqus - Archivist and bookseller plead guilty to pilfering $8M in rare texts from Carnegie Library - The chief justice who presided over the first presidential impeachment trial thought it was political spectacle - Hundreds of Britons Volunteered for a Diary-Keeping Project in 1937. They Left an Invaluable Record of World War II - Fact check: After Pearl Harbor, Japanese didn't invade US because they feared armed citizens? - How Political Divides Shape U.S. History Lessons - AHA Encourages History Departments to Provide Full Library Access to Alumni and to Unaffiliated Historians in their Regions - Clayborne Carson Interviewed by World Socialist Web Site on 1619 Project - “A staggering tour de force – but an opportunity missed”: a historian’s review of the film 1917 - NY Journal of Books Reviews Wilmington's Lie: The Murderous Coup of 1898 and the Rise of White Supremacy - AHA Enrollment Study Finds History Enrollments Hold Study as Department Efforts Intensify	<urn:uuid:f1f34b02-9017-46f1-8820-8ca440c86abb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://historynewsnetwork.org/article/51186	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00057.warc.gz	en	0.980869	8,007	3.953125	4	[ -0.514581561088562, 0.29437053203582764, 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0.133103147149086, -0.10420862585306168, 0.09860587120056152, 0.0832071453332901, -0.05303733050823212, -0.1987740695476532 ]	1	Robert F. Kennedy and the 82 Days That Inspired AmericaHistorians/History tags: RFK, Kennedys In 1968, America was a wounded nation. The wounds were moral ones, and the Vietnam War and three summers of inner- city riots had inflicted them on the national soul, challenging Americans’ belief that they were a uniquely noble and honorable people. Americans saw news footage from South Vietnam, such as the 1965 film of U.S. Marines setting fire to thatched huts in the village of Cam Ne with cigarette lighters and flamethrowers as women and children ran for safety, and realized they were capable of atrocities once considered the province of their enemies. They saw smoke rising over Washington, D.C., during the riots following the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., soldiers with machine guns guarding the Capitol, federal troops patrolling the streets of American cities for the first time since the Civil War, and asked themselves how this could be happening in their City Upon a Hill. Nineteen sixty- eight was an election year, and the presidential candidates all promised to win or negotiate an end to the Vietnam War and to pacify America’s cities with new social programs, draconian law enforcement, or both. But only one candidate, Senator Robert F. Kennedy of New York, recognized the moral wounds and promised to heal them. Days after announcing his candidacy on March 16, he accused President Lyndon Johnson’s administration of abandoning “the generous impulses that are the soul of this nation” and said he was running to offer “a way in which the people themselves can lead the way back to those ideals which are the source of national strength and generosity and compassion of deed.” During his campaign for the Democratic nomination, Kennedy told Americans that they were individually responsible for what their government had done in their name in Vietnam and for what it had failed to do at home for minorities and the poor. He said they could not acquit themselves of this responsibility simply by voting for a new president and new policies. Instead, they would have to participate in the healing process. Because Kennedy had managed his late brother’s 1960 presidential campaign and served in his cabinet as attorney general, he understood that following a crude and divisive campaign with a highminded presidency would be difficult, and healing a morally wounded nation after running an immoral campaign would be impossible. Because he understood this, his campaign is a template for how a candidate should run for the White House in a time of moral crisis. Since 1968, the word hope has become the oratorical equivalent of an American flag lapel pin, a de rigueur rhetorical flourish amounting to a vague promise of better days. But the hope that Robert Kennedy offered was specific: that Americans’ belief in their integrity and decency could be restored. His assassination on June 5, eighty- two days after he had announced his candidacy, represented not just the death of another Kennedy or of a promising young leader, but the death of this hope. This explains why the most dramatic display of public grief for an American citizen who had never been elected to the presidency unfolded on June 8, 1968, when a twenty- one- car funeral train, its engine draped in black bunting, carried Kennedy’s body from his funeral in New York to his burial in Washington. Trains carrying the remains of Presidents Abraham Lincoln and Franklin Roosevelt traveled at a mournful pace, passing bonfires, bands, and weeping crowds, and stopping for tributes. But Kennedy’s train was scheduled to travel nonstop and at a normal rate of speed. Crowds were expected, but no one imagined that on a steamy Saturday afternoon two million people would head for the tracks, wading through marshes, hiking across meadows, and slithering under fences, filling tenement balconies, clambering onto factory roofs, standing in junkyards and cemeteries, peering down from bridges, viaducts, and bluffs, placing 100,000 coins on the tracks, waving hand- lettered goodbye bobby signs, and forging a 226- mile- long chain of grief and despair. Political reporter Theodore White, one of the 1,146 passengers, wrote, “It was only, however, when the funeral train that was to bear him to Washington emerged from the tunnel under the Hudson that one could grasp what kind of a man he was and what he had meant to Americans.” Once the train crossed into New Jersey, mourners jamming station platforms and spilling onto northbound tracks forced the engineer to reduce his speed. After a northbound express killed two people standing on the tracks in Elizabeth, the Penn Central halted all other traffic on the line and the funeral train continued to Washington at half speed. Inside the coaches, some of Kennedy’s ten children played with balloons in the dining car while their mother, her black veil pulled back over her head, walked through the coaches, greeting mourners. Passengers ate in the dining cars, drank until the bar car ran dry, or remained determinedly sober. They laughed, cried, or sat in stony silence, found this impromptu wake distressing or a fitting tribute. But they all stared out the windows and saw their grief reflected in the faces of people whom they usually flew over or sped past. Looking out those windows were many of the people responsible for the political and cultural life of the nation during the years since John F. Kennedy’s inauguration: New York socialites and Massachusetts backroom pols, Hollywood celebrities and media heavyweights, star athletes and famous writers, architects and opponents of the Vietnam War, men who had served in John Kennedy’s administration and might have served in Bobby’s. There was Charles Evers, whom Bobby Kennedy had comforted after his brother, civil rights leader Medgar Evers, was assassinated in 1963, and who was now thinking about Bobby: “Where, dear God, is the man to take his place?” There was Coretta Scott King, whom Bobby had comforted after her husband was assassinated in April of that year, and Jackie Kennedy, who had told former White House aide Arthur Schlesinger that she feared “the same thing” that had happened to her husband would happen to Bobby because “there is so much hatred in this country, and more people hate Bobby than hated Jack.” Passengers stared out the windows and saw men in undershirts, sport shirts, uniforms, and suits: crying, saluting, standing at attention, and holding their hard hats over their hearts. They saw women in madras shorts, house dresses, and Sunday dresses: weeping, kneeling, covering their faces, and holding up children as if telling them, “You look at Robert Kennedy, and that’s the way you should lead your life.” They saw people who were also mourning Martin Luther King Jr. and John F. Kennedy, although they may not have known it, and people who were weeping because they sensed that this signified the end of something, although they were not sure what. They saw some of the same derelict factories, creaky tenements, shuttered stores, and crimebattered neighborhoods that anyone traveling this route today still sees, but might not be seeing had Robert Kennedy lived. Even after the air- conditioning failed and the food ran out, some passengers were saying, “I hope this train ride never ends,” because they knew this was the last time that Bobby Kennedy would bring them together. They wept when high school bands played “Taps” as the train slid through stations at Trenton and New Brunswick, and when mourners in the Philadelphia and Baltimore stations sang Kennedy’s favorite hymn, “The Battle Hymn of the Republic”; they wept when police bands played “The Star- Spangled Banner” and “America the Beautiful,” and again when they passed diamonds where Little Leaguers stood at attention along the baselines, heads bowed and caps held over their hearts. Because anyone who owned an American flag had flown it or brought it, they saw flags flying at half- staff in front of factories and schools, dipped by American Legion honor guards, and waved by Cub Scouts. Because anyone owning a uniform had worn it, they saw policemen in gold braid and white gloves, fire companies standing at attention next to their trucks, and veterans in Eisenhower jackets and overseas caps snapping salutes. They saw the kind of white working- class backlash voters who had supported former Alabama governor George Wallace’s 1964 candidacy for the Democratic nomination, and would vote again for Wallace or Republican Richard Nixon in November, although until four days before many had planned to vote for Robert Kennedy. Today, these whites had not only turned out to mourn a politician who was an acknowledged champion of black Americans, and who had condemned an American war as “deeply wrong”; they had decided that the most fitting way to do this was to wear a uniform and wave a flag. “Marvelous crowds,” Arthur Schlesinger told Kenny O’Donnell, a former White House aide to John Kennedy who had been Bobby Kennedy’s Harvard classmate. “Yes,” O’Donnell replied. “But what are they good for?” But Adalbert de Segonzac of France Soir noticed that they were the same kind of people—he called them “small white people”—who had cheered Kennedy in the working- class towns of northern Indiana. They may not have been good for anything now, he thought, but they proved something, and he opened his article about the funeral train, “Robert Kennedy won the American election today.” Richard Harwood of the Washington Post saw “trembling nuns” and “adoring children,” reported that blacks cried most, and concluded, “It may not have had the grandeur of the last train ride Abraham Lincoln took through the weeping countryside a century ago. But no one could be sure of that.” Not since Lincoln had black Americans embraced a white politician as passionately and completely. They, as well as many whites, feared that Robert Kennedy’s assassination, like Lincoln’s, had eliminated the only leader who could heal and unify a wounded nation. Some of the spectators who broke into “The Battle Hymn of the Republic” as the train passed through Baltimore and Philadelphia may have been making the Kennedy–Lincoln connection as well; those gathered at the Lincoln Memorial who flicked on lighters, held up matches, and sang “The Battle Hymn” as his cortege paused en route to Arlington certainly were. NBC commentator David Brinkley called Kennedy “the only white politician left who could talk to both races” and compared his assassination to Lincoln’s, and as images of Kennedy’s funeral train appeared on the television screen, another newsman read an account of Lincoln’s funeral train, saying, “The people are lined up along the tracks . . . particularly black people. They have built bonfires for miles, and the train is proceeding within the parallel lines of bonfires. . . . And so the train bearing the body of Abraham Lincoln reached Washington.” After the accident at Elizabeth, the train traveled so slowly that its passengers noticed details about the people outside their windows. They saw a long- haired girl on a horse, five nuns standing on tiptoes in a yellow pickup truck, a crowd of young black militants with Afros holding up clenched fists, white policemen cradling black children in their arms, a family with a sign reading the gebharts are sad, and five black boys in church clothes, each holding a rose. AP reporter Joe Mohbat and Jack Miller, a prosecutor who had served as chief of the Criminal Division in Bobby Kennedy’s Justice Department, broke down and wept when the train passed a line of saluting schoolchildren, a reminder of John F. Kennedy Jr. saluting his father’s casket. Gertrude Wilson of the Amsterdam News put her hands against the window and sobbed at the sight of a black woman in Baltimore clutching a hand- lettered sign that said HOPE. Sylvia Wright of Life remembered a wedding party standing in a Delaware meadow. The bridesmaids held the hems of their pink and green dresses in one hand, their bouquets in the other. As the last car carrying Kennedy’s coffin passed, they extended their arms and tossed their flowers against its side. After seeing this, and the solemn Boy Scouts, black women prostrate with grief, and brawny white men gripping tiny flags in ham- hock hands as tears rolled down their cheeks, Wright asked herself the question that has become the silent descant of most everything written or said about Bobby Kennedy: “What did he have that he could do this to people?” On the twentieth anniversary of Robert Kennedy’s assassination, author Jack Newfield called it “a wound that hurts more, not less, as time passes.” On its twenty- fifth anniversary, Judi Cornelius, a Native American woman who had arranged Kennedy’s visit to her reservation, visited his grave at Arlington only to discover that, she said, “My heart ached just like it had two and a half de cades earlier, and some wounds to [our] tender dreams never heal.” On its thirtieth, former aide Peter Edelman told a reporter, “I had a dream for years that he [Kennedy] came back alive. Actually, I still do.” And a year after that, New York Times reporter Anthony Lewis said, “The year after he died, I wrote a column about him. ‘Time,’ I wrote, ‘does not diminish the sense that life without him is incomplete.’ Thirty- one years later, I still feel that way.” What did he have? Congressman John Lewis, who had been on Kennedy’s campaign staff, asks himself “What would Bobby do?” before casting a difficult vote in the House of Representatives. Kennedy’s former press secretary, Frank Mankiewicz, who had announced Kennedy’s death to reporters at Good Samaritan Hospital in Los Angeles, saying, “Senator Robert Francis Kennedy died at 1:44 a.m. today, June 6, 1968. . . . He was forty- two years old,” remembers him whenever he hears “The trumpet shall sound” aria in the Messiah, “because Bob Kennedy was the trumpet, and he’s still sounding for me.” Doug German, a young Kennedy volunteer in Nebraska, says he abandoned party politics afterward because “The music died for me.” John Bartlow Martin, who wrote speeches for Adlai Stevenson and John Kennedy before writing them for Bobby, went into seclusion at his home in rural Michigan, writing in his diary, “It’s over, the brief bright dream. Last time they let us have it for three years [ JFK’s presidency]. . . . Now I feel nothing but bleak despair. . . . [Before] there was the thought, ‘well, there’s always Bob: Now there isn’t.’ ” Jerry Bruno, Kennedy’s hard- boiled advance man, claims the politics were never the same for him, adding, “It was like all of our lives just stopped.” Life photographer Bill Eppridge never asked to cover another campaign, and says, “When you get to the pinnacle what else is there? It would have been like going back and shooting weddings.” And whenever Eppridge visits the Vietnam War memorial, he finds himself looking at the names of servicemen killed after January 15, 1969, when Kennedy might have been inaugurated, wondering how many would still be alive. Attorney Jim Tolan, who had prepared the way for—in political parlance, “advanced”—many of Kennedy’s appearances that spring, leaves the room whenever images of him appear in a televi ion documentary. “I fell in love with Robert Kennedy, with his goodness,” he says. “Listen, I loved that man.” Associated Press correspondent Joe Mohbat, who spent more time in close physical proximity to him than any reporter that spring, lost his taste for journalism and became a lawyer. “I can still see him with his shirt sleeves rolled up, and his hairy muscular forearms,” he says. “One lid covers more of one eye than the other—a kind of droopy lid—and there is an absolute intensity about him, even when he’s joking. There will never be anyone like him. History won’t allow it, the media won’t allow it, the blogs won’t allow it.” He stops before adding in a choked voice, “You really want to know what Bob Kennedy was? He was fucking beautiful.” What did he have? Those still mourning him usually mention Hugh McDonald, his twenty- nine- year- old assistant press secretary, perhaps because McDonald’s grief was an extreme version of their own. He had dashed into the pantry of the Ambassador Hotel seconds after the shots and handed his suit jacket to bodyguard Bill Barry, who used it to stanch the blood flowing from the wound in Kennedy’s head. McDonald wept as he removed Kennedy’s shoes to make him more comfortable. Later, he wandered the corridors of the Ambassador Hotel and Good Samaritan Hospital, clutching a pair of size 81⁄2 black shoes with arch supports, wearing a blank expression, and saying, “I’ve got his shoes . . . I’ve got his shoes.” Because McDonald had been in charge of checking the credentials of those entering the room where Kennedy was speaking, he blamed himself for admitting the assassin. He suffered from shock and depression, ended up divorced, attempted suicide, and died in a Los Angeles rooming house in March 1978, ten years to the month after Robert Kennedy had announced his candidacy. What did he have? Director John Frankenheimer, who drove Kennedy to the Ambassador Hotel on the night of the assassination, developed a drinking problem that crippled his career for two decades. Olympic decathlon champion Rafer Johnson, who was steps away when Kennedy was shot, suffered months of paranoia, using public telephones and fictitious names to communicate with friends because he believed he was next. Singer Rosemary Clooney, who was also at the Ambassador that night, insisted that Kennedy had survived and his death was an elaborate hoax. She suffered a nervous breakdown and was institutionalized. On the night of Kennedy’s funeral, singer Bobby Darin remained by his grave in Arlington until dawn, sleeping on the ground and claiming to have experienced what he called a “metaphysical illumination” that had transformed him into a “new me, a better me . . . striving for only one thing: to help the world change toward goodness.” What did he have? Many are haunted by Kennedy’s phantom presidency. Two decades after his death, Ralph Bartlow Martin wrote, “I have no doubt at all that if nominated he [Kennedy] would have been elected. And if elected, a great President, maybe greater than his brother. But they would have killed him.” As Kennedy lay dying, Jack Newfield told John Lewis, “I can feel history slipping through my fingers.” Four decades later, Lewis says, “I thought that if this one man was elected president, he could move us closer to what many of us in the movement called ‘The Loving Community.’ ” Former Kennedy aide Peter Edelman still believes that his presidency “would have influenced the tone and direction of American politics for de cades.” Edwin Guthman, who worked in the Kennedy Justice Department, writes, “To know anything about him is to know that had he lived and won in 1968, he would have been a great President.” Look correspondent Warren Rogers told an interviewer in 1997 that his presidency would have left “a far more decent, a far gentler and less uncouth country than we are today,” and the political commentator Mark Shields, who worked for him in the Nebraska primary, says, “I’ll go to my grave believing Robert Kennedy would have been the best President of my lifetime.” Ask Shields, Mankiewicz, and other former Kennedy aides what his presidency would have meant, and you invariably hear the word different: “This would be an entirely different country,” “Everything would be different,” or words to that effect. Ask how things would be different, and you hear two narratives: one describing Kennedy’s presidency and the other, its legacy. Imagining his presidency is easy because, as even his enemies would concede, he meant what he said. So it is likely that he would have negotiated a settlement to the Vietnam War soon after his inauguration, saving the lives of the two million Vietnamese and twenty thousand American servicemen killed during the Nixon administration. Because he would not have bombed Cambodia, America would have escaped the trauma of Kent State and Jackson State, and Cambodia would probably have escaped the murderous Pol Pot regime. The Watergate would be just another apartment building, and America would have avoided the disillusionment and cynicism following that scandal. Had Kennedy won the presidency, young and minority Americans would have had a champion in the White House. The riots and protests marking Nixon’s first year would have been blunted, and Kennedy might have convinced Americans that real “immorality” meant poverty, racial discrimination, and an unnecessary war. Had Kennedy beaten Nixon in 1968, both parties might not have embraced—or at least not so readily—the sound bites, focus groups, stage- managed appearances, screened questions, bogus spontaneity, and other corrosive hallmarks of Nixon’s successful campaign. And had Kennedy won, then the guiding principle of Nixon’s campaign as spelled out in his secret 1968 manual—“The central point of scheduling is that the campaign is symbolic, i.e. it is not what the candidate actually does as much as what it appears he does [that matters]”—might have been discredited rather than emulated. Frank Mankiewicz defines what a Kennedy presidency would have meant: “This would be a totally different country, not like it is today, with the political machinery grinding against itself, sending off sparks.” But what kind of oil was Kennedy proposing to pour into the jammed political machinery of the time? Might it still be effective? What did he have? The obvious answer to Sylvia Wright’s question is that he had his last name and his position as the oldest surviving brother of a beloved and martyred president. But even this is insufficient to explain the intensity and longevity of the grief following his assassination, nor are his youth, eloquence, and good looks, although they made his death more heartbreaking. They are not enough because had he been assassinated or died of natural causes before running for president, or in the early days of his campaign, it is inconceivable that two million people would have turned out for his funeral train, or that there would ever have been such a train, or that his phantom presidency would remain so haunting. Had his assassination not been preceded by his eighty two-day campaign, it is also inconceivable that 92 percent of the residents of Harlem would have claimed to be mourning him more than JFK, or that Norman Mailer would have admitted loving him “by five times more in death than life,” or that at his funeral tears would have coursed down the cheeks of both Tom Hayden of the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) and Mayor Richard Daley of Chicago, two men at opposite ends of the Democratic Party’s political spectrum, or that more photographs of him would still be hanging in congressional offices than of any other former member of the House or Senate, or so it is said. It is Robert Kennedy’s campaign that explains the grief, reveals how he would have freed America’s jammed political machinery, and answers Wright’s question and its obvious corollary: What did he do during those eighty- two days? His campaign explains why authorities assumed that his assassination would spark riots in black neighborhoods equal to those following the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., why the Pentagon’s new riot- monitoring unit, the Army Directorate for Civil Disturbances Planning and Operations, immediately went on a state of alert, and why almost twenty- five thousand California National Guard troops were readied to move into the ghettos. The military was not alone in forecasting a violent reaction. Two weeks earlier, Tom Wicker had written in the New York Times, “The people of the ghetto are volatile and suspicious and militant; if they believe Kennedy has been ‘dealt out’ by the Democrats their response could be angry and even violent.” Many of Kennedy’s black supporters had also expected the ghettos to explode as they had for Dr. King. They seemed almost embarrassed that they had not, and explained that their people had still been reeling from the King assassination and were too shattered to lash out again. Kennedy’s campaign also explains his popularity with black Americans, why some called him a “blue- eyed soul brother,” why Charles Evers’s reaction to his assassination was wailing, “My God! My God! What are my people going to do?” and why John Lewis responded by, he says, “crying, sobbing, heaving as if something had been busted open inside,” even though he had not wept for Martin Luther King Jr. His campaign explains why many of the same Midwestern farmers, factory workers, and white ethnics who would vote Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, and both Bushes into the White House, voted for Robert Kennedy in the Democratic primaries, and why Fred Papert, who managed his advertising campaign, is justified in believing that millions of Americans would have turned out for his funeral train, even if it had traveled through the Deep South or Far West, “all those areas where everybody thinks people are different, ultra- conservative, and reactionary.” One of the reporters covering Kennedy’s campaign called it a “huge, joyous adventure.” Revisiting it can also be a joyous experience because no credible candidate since has run so passionately or recklessly, or without the customary and ever- expanding carapace of consultants, pollsters, spinners, and question- screeners. Nor has anyone put poverty at the center of a presidential campaign, except John Edwards, excited minorities and the poor as much, been trusted as much by both blacks and working- class whites, or criticized the American people so brazenly. Try to imagine a mainstream politician saying, as Kennedy did in a New York Times essay, “Once we thought, with Jefferson, that we were the ‘best hope’ of all mankind. But now we seem to rely only on our wealth and power,” or, as he did on Meet the Press: “I am dissatisfied with our society. I suppose I am dissatisfied with my country.” You cannot because today’s thin- skinned electorate would never tolerate such criticism. Revisiting Robert Kennedy’s campaign can be heartbreaking because it resembles a kind of slow- motion suicide, and because one knows who, and what, is coming next; not just the second assassination of a Kennedy, but Talking Points, Red and Blue States, That depends on what the meaning of “is” is, and Bring ’em on! Revisiting it is also tricky because he was at his best during those eighty- two days. Author Wilfrid Sheed, who worked for one of Kennedy’s rivals for the Democratic nomination, Senator Eugene McCarthy of Minnesota, would later concede that Kennedy’s campaign had been “what his life had been about all along, and that his death henceforth would serve principally to direct our eyes to it,” adding, “For those few weeks at least, Bobby became a very great man, transcending his own nature and even some of our quibbles with it.” One of Kennedy’s friends told biographer William Shannon, “You never know which Bobby Kennedy you’re going to meet,” and Shannon, writing about Kennedy while he was still alive, called him “rude, restless, impatient,” but also “brilliant, inspiring, forceful.” It was this second Bobby Kennedy who campaigned for the Democratic nomination that spring. Because Kennedy was at his best during his last campaign, one is tempted to highlight his missteps to avoid appearing too partisan. Hays Gorey of Time said that some reporters covering the campaign did just that, admitting, “At some point it sank in on most of us that there was something real and good and decent about the candidate. Yet we had to regard his every move as suspect or we weren’t being good reporters.” Bobby Kennedy was no saint. He had a quick temper, and he could be cruel to those he disliked or who had disappointed him. He had worked for Senator Joseph McCarthy’s notorious Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations in 1954 and retained an affection for McCarthy longer than was seemly. He had been a tough and merciless interrogator while serving as chief counsel to a Senate committee investigating the penetration of labor unions by organized crime, and a demanding and hard- boiled manager of JFK’s 1960 presidential campaign. One of JFK’s aides told Washington Post reporter Richard Harwood that there had been a “good Bobby and a bad Bobby” in 1960, and the bad one resembled “a petulant baseball player who strikes out in the clutch and kicks the bat boy.” But Harwood noted that that side of Bobby Kennedy was not in evidence in 1968. Instead, “What came out most . . . was his gentleness,” he said. JFK adviser Ted Sorensen remembered the Bobby Kennedy of the 1950s being “militant, aggressive, intolerant, opinionated, somewhat shallow in his convictions . . . [and] more like his father than his brother [JFK],” but believed that by 1968 he had transformed himself, abandoning his hard line on the Cold War, repudiating the Vietnam War, and becoming deeply troubled by poverty and racial injustice. While serving on these Senate committees in the 1950s and as his brother’s attorney general and principal adviser in the early 1960s, Bobby Kennedy had become acquainted with the government’s darkest secrets. He knew about President Kennedy’s adulteries and America’s involvement in the coup resulting in the assassination of South Vietnamese president Ngo Dinh Diem. He had investigated and interrogated union bosses corrupted by the Mafia, approved and encouraged CIA attempts to assassinate Fidel Castro, authorized wiretaps on Martin Luther King Jr.’s telephones in the mistaken belief that two of his associates were Communists, and turned a blind eye to attempts by FBI chief J. Edgar Hoover to intimidate and discredit King. But because he knew all this, he also knew more about the inner workings of the government and the White House than any presidential candidate in history, and he ran for that office with eyes wide open, understanding the risks he was assuming and hatreds he was unleashing by becoming the second Kennedy in a decade to seek it. Although he had only served in the Senate for three years, he was more qualified to assume the presidency than John Kennedy had been in 1960. He had been an excellent attorney general—some thought the best in history—and had served as a kind of assistant president, witnessing the Bay of Pigs debacle firsthand, playing a pivotal role in resolving the Cuban Missile Crisis, conducting clandestine negotiations with Soviet diplomats, and supervising the CIA. Since his brother’s assassination in Dallas he had become more contemplative and sensitive, and felt more guilty over his role in embroiling America in the Vietnam War, and his brother’s choice of Lyndon Johnson as vice president. There was also, for him, the possibility that something he had done—perhaps his obsession with eliminating Fidel Castro, or the enemies he made by pursuing mobsters and corrupt union officials—had prompted his brother’s assassination. Revisiting Robert Kennedy ’ s campaign has never been more timely. In 1968, young men who could not afford to pay for college were drafted and died in disproportionate numbers in Vietnam. Four decades later, poor young men and women volunteer for military ser vice to earn the money for college tuition and die in disproportionate numbers in Iraq. In 1968, as now, an unpopular president was waging a controversial war that had divided Americans and poisoned the nation’s relations with its allies. What Kennedy said about that war could be said verbatim about Iraq: For it is long past time to ask: what is this war doing to us? Of course it is costing us money . . . but that is the smallest price we pay. The cost is in our young men, the tens of thousands of their lives cut off forever. The cost is in our world position—in neutrals and allies alike, every day more baffled and estranged from a policy they cannot understand. There is a failing of generosity and compassion. There is an unwillingness to sacrifice. We cannot continue to deny and postpone the demands of our own people while spending billions in the name of the freedom for others. We have an ally in name only. We support a government without supporters. Without the effort of American arms, that government would not last a day. The front pages of our newspapers show photographs of American soldiers torturing prisoners. During his campaign, Kennedy spoke of a nation where “the affluent are getting more affluent and the poor are getting poorer,” a situation that the late journalist David Halberstam summarized in a sentence that could have been written four de cades later: “The rich were getting richer in America and the poor were getting poorer and by and large the rich were white and the poor were black.” In 1968, riots following the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. highlighted the chasm between white and black Americans. Thirty- seven years later, Hurricane Katrina had a similar effect. On November 15, 2005, some former passengers on Kennedy’s funeral train gathered with several hundred others at the Capitol for a “memorial commemoration” of Robert Kennedy’s eightieth birthday. (Had he been celebrating in person, he would have been a year younger than former presidents Jimmy Carter and George H. W. Bush). One searches in vain for similar events marking the landmark birthdays of presidents such as Franklin D. Roosevelt and John F. Kennedy, but if anyone considered it unusual to be marking Robert Kennedy’s eightieth birthday thirty- seven years after his death, they remained silent. Instead, the unspoken assumption was that his presidential campaign had never mattered so much, and the unspoken question hovering over John Kerry, Hillary Clinton, Barack Obama, and others offering tributes was which one had the courage to raise the issues that he had, and campaign as he did. Following speeches and the presentation of the annual Robert F. Kennedy Human Rights Award, a video was screened showing the devastation in New Orleans following Hurricane Katrina. Its only sound track was a speech that Kennedy had delivered at the University of Kansas on March 18, 1968, two days after announcing his candidacy. And so, as black residents of New Orleans waded through their flooded streets, Kennedy could be heard saying, “I have seen these other Americans—I have seen children in Mississippi starving. . . . I don’t think that’s acceptable in the United States of America.” As they stood on rooftops, waving at helicopters, he said, “If we believe that we, as Americans, are bound together by a common concern for each other, then an urgent national priority is upon us. We must end the disgrace of this other America.” As they milled outside the convention center, he said, “But even if we act to erase material poverty there is another great task. It is to confront the poverty of satisfaction—a lack of purpose and dignity—that inflicts us all. Too much and too long we seem to have surrendered community excellence and community values in the mere accumulation of material things.” The stars may never be aligned as they were in 1968, and Americans may wait de cades for another year as pivotal, or for another eighty- two days that become the axis upon which such a pivotal year turns. Or perhaps not. There are things that Robert Kennedy did and said during his campaign that only the brother of a martyred president could have done and said, but there are others that another candidate could easily do and say, if the American people demanded them. John Nolan, who scheduled many of Kennedy’s appearances that spring, believes, “What he did was not really that mystical. 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Jean Calvin the humanist becomes a reformer He was born in Noyon, Normandy, and first studied law and then theology. He travelled to Orléans and Bourges to study and moved in humanistic circles. The circles were in favour of a reform of the Church. . Posters -called Placards- against the Mass, the Pope and the priests were posted in Paris, Orléans, Amboise and Blois, even on the door to the King’s bedroom. Repression was severe. Calvin had split from the Catholic Church just before. He fled and took refuge in Basel where he started writing his major work published in Latin in 1536: The Institutes of the Christian Religion. From Basel to Geneva Jean Calvin wanted to go to Strasburg. He had to stop over in Geneva because of the wars. He met Guillaume Farel, the pastor of the city who had adopted the Protestant reform. Farel asked Calvin to stay in Geneva and help him establish the Protestant Church. Calvin stayed there from 1536 to 1538. Then, as he disagreed with the city’s government, he was rejected along with Farel. They settled in Strasburg, a Protestant city, where he was a pastor from 1538 to 1541. There he married Idelette de Bure, a widow and mother of two, in 1540. A child was born in 1541, but died at an early age. In 1540 the citizens of Geneva asked Calvin to come back. Geneva, the beacon of Protestantism When he came back to Geneva in 1541, Calvin preached twice on a Sundays and weekly every other day. He always dealt with one book from the Bible. In 1541, Calvin published a new version of The Institutes of the Christian Religion, but in French this time. It was one of the first books on Protestant theology in French. Calvin’s writings were numerous, biblical commentaries, theological works, letters, etc. They were all in French, so that they were not reserved for the clergy. Communities were set up in France, which Calvin called planted Churches. He encouraged them by sending pastors trained at the Academy in Geneva. After 1555, Calvin’s authority in Geneva was no longer questioned. The Genovese model spread all over Europe. 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He travelled to Orléans and Bourges to study and moved in humanistic circles. The circles were in favour of a reform of the Church. . Posters -called Placards- against the Mass, the Pope and the priests were posted in Paris, Orléans, Amboise and Blois, even on the door to the King’s bedroom. Repression was severe. Calvin had split from the Catholic Church just before. He fled and took refuge in Basel where he started writing his major work published in Latin in 1536: The Institutes of the Christian Religion. From Basel to Geneva Jean Calvin wanted to go to Strasburg. He had to stop over in Geneva because of the wars. He met Guillaume Farel, the pastor of the city who had adopted the Protestant reform. Farel asked Calvin to stay in Geneva and help him establish the Protestant Church. Calvin stayed there from 1536 to 1538. Then, as he disagreed with the city’s government, he was rejected along with Farel. They settled in Strasburg, a Protestant city, where he was a pastor from 1538 to 1541. There he married Idelette de Bure, a widow and mother of two, in 1540. A child was born in 1541, but died at an early age. In 1540 the citizens of Geneva asked Calvin to come back. Geneva, the beacon of Protestantism When he came back to Geneva in 1541, Calvin preached twice on a Sundays and weekly every other day. He always dealt with one book from the Bible. In 1541, Calvin published a new version of The Institutes of the Christian Religion, but in French this time. It was one of the first books on Protestant theology in French. Calvin’s writings were numerous, biblical commentaries, theological works, letters, etc. They were all in French, so that they were not reserved for the clergy. Communities were set up in France, which Calvin called planted Churches. He encouraged them by sending pastors trained at the Academy in Geneva. After 1555, Calvin’s authority in Geneva was no longer questioned. The Genovese model spread all over Europe. Jean Calvin died on 27 May 1564. - Jean Calvin (document destiné aux enseignants) \| File	532	ENGLISH	1
Markets and fairs were the centres of commercial life in the early modern period. Traders travelled to them from all over Europe in order to offer their wares, for example to Linz. For the parts of Austria along the Danube it was especially the markets held in Krems and Linz that were of more than just regional importance in terms of the interest and the number of visitors that they attracted. The markets held in Freistadt in the north of Upper Austria were important for trade with Bohemia. In addition there were any number of small weekly markets and annual fairs that were important for regional trade. In the sixteenth century the markets held in Linz, which can be traced back to the thirteenth century, were among the largest in the Holy Roman Empire. The bridge across the Danube there, built under Maximilian I at the turn of the fifteenth to the sixteenth century, had a considerable impact, as it was one of just three bridges across the river between Vienna and Linz. Fairs were organized around fixed holidays and lasted several weeks: St Bartholemew’s Fair in Linz lasted four weeks and was held around the saint’s day on 24 August, while the town’s other big market, the Easter Fair, lasted for a fortnight. The goods offered at them included skins, honey, salt, wine, grain and iron, though the largest turnover was made with cloth. Most of the traders came from the surrounding area and not so distant provinces such as Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Hungary, Poland, Silesia, Moravia and Bohemia, though they also came from as far away as Italy, France and Spain. It was in the middle of the sixteenth century that the turnover of goods at the fairs held in Linz reached its peak. In 1566 some 211,000 metres of cloth was sold at just one of the fairs, while in 1593 the total turnover of the two fairs amounted to some four million gulden. They even supplied cloth and silver tableware to the Habsburg Courts in Vienna, Graz and Innsbruck. 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Traders travelled to them from all over Europe in order to offer their wares, for example to Linz. For the parts of Austria along the Danube it was especially the markets held in Krems and Linz that were of more than just regional importance in terms of the interest and the number of visitors that they attracted. The markets held in Freistadt in the north of Upper Austria were important for trade with Bohemia. In addition there were any number of small weekly markets and annual fairs that were important for regional trade. In the sixteenth century the markets held in Linz, which can be traced back to the thirteenth century, were among the largest in the Holy Roman Empire. The bridge across the Danube there, built under Maximilian I at the turn of the fifteenth to the sixteenth century, had a considerable impact, as it was one of just three bridges across the river between Vienna and Linz. Fairs were organized around fixed holidays and lasted several weeks: St Bartholemew’s Fair in Linz lasted four weeks and was held around the saint’s day on 24 August, while the town’s other big market, the Easter Fair, lasted for a fortnight. The goods offered at them included skins, honey, salt, wine, grain and iron, though the largest turnover was made with cloth. Most of the traders came from the surrounding area and not so distant provinces such as Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Hungary, Poland, Silesia, Moravia and Bohemia, though they also came from as far away as Italy, France and Spain. It was in the middle of the sixteenth century that the turnover of goods at the fairs held in Linz reached its peak. In 1566 some 211,000 metres of cloth was sold at just one of the fairs, while in 1593 the total turnover of the two fairs amounted to some four million gulden. They even supplied cloth and silver tableware to the Habsburg Courts in Vienna, Graz and Innsbruck. The fairs were important not only for the trade in goods but also as centres of finance and loan transactions in Central Europe.	472	ENGLISH	1
Ancient Egyptian Burial During Ancient Egyptian times, the living would bury the dead or they would have some type of funeral that would allow their loved one to pass to the afterlife. The afterlife is thought to be a place that was similar to the life that people lived on Earth, but it was to be better and a perfect, happy place. This was an idea that the afterlife would end in all good things, if one died with a pure heart. There were burials that happened in the form of mummies. Mummification was a time where the Ancient Egyptians would take the dead body of their loved one and preserve it. The soul would then go to a place in the afterlife. When a person would die, the family would take the body into a place and the person would embalm the body or make the body so that it would not decay. It was thought that the only way that a person could make it into the afterlife was if their body was preserved. If the body was not preserved, there was no way that person would be allowed to enter after deal. Entering into the afterlife was the main source of focus for most of the Ancient Egyptians, so it was very important for their body to be mummified. When the body died, the priest would come and do a ceremony over the body. He would wash the body and put oil on it and cover it in water that was taken from the Nile River. The priest would pray over the body and ask the gods to take them to the afterlife. The organs would then be removed from the Ancient Egyptians body and they would be washed and put in jars. The organs were all removed except for the heart, which had to be kept in the body for the afterlife. The body was then covered with a form of cloth called natron. The organs would be packed in the natron cloth as well and it would help to dry the body to prepare it for the afterlife. For 40 days, the body would be dried out so that all of the fluids in the body would dry. After the body was dry, the natron is removed, and the organs are wrapped in the cloth and put back into the body. The body is again rubbed with oil and the nostrils are stuffed and make-up is applied to the eyes and the face. The body is then decorated with amulets and charms so that the person that died can take these things into the afterlife with them. It was very important for the dead to have treasures to take with them when they died. A mask was then put on the face of the body and it was used so that the Ba and Ka could find the body. The mask looked as close to what the person originally looked like and it was like a nametag so that the Ba and Ka could come together and know the body. After the body is washed, cleaned, oiled and decorated, the body is put into a coffin that is called a cartouche. The name of the person is written on the casket so that the Ba and Ka know where to go. The name of the dead person has to be written somewhere so the Ba and Ka know which body to go to. There is then a place where the priest takes the family and the friends, and the body is put into the tomb. People cry and follow the priest to this area while he prays. The tomb is finally locked and sealed and the body goes into its judgement in the afterlife. Parts of the Soul There were nine separate parts of the body and soul: - Ka-part of the soul. - Ba-the other part of the soul that was in human form. - Khat-the actual body of a person - Akh-the person after they went to the afterlife. - Ab-the heart. - Ren-the secret name that a person was given when they entered into the afterlife. - Shuyet-a person’s shadow. - Sahu and Sechem-part of the person after they were transformed in the afterlife. The khat was important because it allowed the Ba and the Ka to find itself in the afterlife. The Ba and the Ka had to find itself in order for a person to be able to live a happy life in the afterlife. More Facts About the Ancient Egyptian Burial: - When a person is buried, their body is made into a mummy, this is called mummification. - It took around 70 days for the mummification to work. - The organs that were put into jars were buried in the tomb with the body. - The heart is never removed from the body because it is needed to enter into the afterlife. The heart is thought to be the part of the person that has the most life. - When a body is taken to be embalmed, this is usually done by a priest. What Did You Learn? - What is an Ancient Egyptians burial? An Ancient Egyptian burial is the process of preparing the body for mummification. - Does the body actually get buried? Most of the time the Ancient Egyptians were not buried but they were put into tombs. - Why was it important for the body to be mummified? The body had to be mummified because according to Ancient Egyptian culture, the person could not make it to the afterlife if their body was not mummified. - What is another word for mummification? Embalming is another word for mummification, this means the body is prepared so that it does not decay. - Why was a mask and name tag used on the person and the coffin? The mask and name tag was used on the person and the coffin because the Ba and Ka which was part of a person’s soul, had to be able to find each other and the body and it could only do that with a mask and a name written somewhere.	<urn:uuid:f0668e12-1e54-4402-817e-fc4ff2fa4650>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historyforkids.net/ancient-egyptian-burial.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00446.warc.gz	en	0.985618	1,225	3.53125	4	[ -0.43934088945388794, 0.70390784740448, 0.2562704086303711, 0.011803832836449146, -0.48113542795181274, -0.04184870421886444, 0.5983612537384033, -0.15459898114204407, -0.08982133865356445, -0.0023407754488289356, -0.04858183488249779, -0.38954615592956543, -0.17006155848503113, 0.24971212446689606, 0.02825329080224037, 0.10758647322654724, -0.1812972128391266, 0.4392566680908203, -0.9185541868209839, 0.10484355688095093, 0.6487563252449036, -0.11635418236255646, 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The afterlife is thought to be a place that was similar to the life that people lived on Earth, but it was to be better and a perfect, happy place. This was an idea that the afterlife would end in all good things, if one died with a pure heart. There were burials that happened in the form of mummies. Mummification was a time where the Ancient Egyptians would take the dead body of their loved one and preserve it. The soul would then go to a place in the afterlife. When a person would die, the family would take the body into a place and the person would embalm the body or make the body so that it would not decay. It was thought that the only way that a person could make it into the afterlife was if their body was preserved. If the body was not preserved, there was no way that person would be allowed to enter after deal. Entering into the afterlife was the main source of focus for most of the Ancient Egyptians, so it was very important for their body to be mummified. When the body died, the priest would come and do a ceremony over the body. He would wash the body and put oil on it and cover it in water that was taken from the Nile River. The priest would pray over the body and ask the gods to take them to the afterlife. The organs would then be removed from the Ancient Egyptians body and they would be washed and put in jars. The organs were all removed except for the heart, which had to be kept in the body for the afterlife. The body was then covered with a form of cloth called natron. The organs would be packed in the natron cloth as well and it would help to dry the body to prepare it for the afterlife. For 40 days, the body would be dried out so that all of the fluids in the body would dry. After the body was dry, the natron is removed, and the organs are wrapped in the cloth and put back into the body. The body is again rubbed with oil and the nostrils are stuffed and make-up is applied to the eyes and the face. The body is then decorated with amulets and charms so that the person that died can take these things into the afterlife with them. It was very important for the dead to have treasures to take with them when they died. A mask was then put on the face of the body and it was used so that the Ba and Ka could find the body. The mask looked as close to what the person originally looked like and it was like a nametag so that the Ba and Ka could come together and know the body. After the body is washed, cleaned, oiled and decorated, the body is put into a coffin that is called a cartouche. The name of the person is written on the casket so that the Ba and Ka know where to go. The name of the dead person has to be written somewhere so the Ba and Ka know which body to go to. There is then a place where the priest takes the family and the friends, and the body is put into the tomb. People cry and follow the priest to this area while he prays. The tomb is finally locked and sealed and the body goes into its judgement in the afterlife. Parts of the Soul There were nine separate parts of the body and soul: - Ka-part of the soul. - Ba-the other part of the soul that was in human form. - Khat-the actual body of a person - Akh-the person after they went to the afterlife. - Ab-the heart. - Ren-the secret name that a person was given when they entered into the afterlife. - Shuyet-a person’s shadow. - Sahu and Sechem-part of the person after they were transformed in the afterlife. The khat was important because it allowed the Ba and the Ka to find itself in the afterlife. The Ba and the Ka had to find itself in order for a person to be able to live a happy life in the afterlife. More Facts About the Ancient Egyptian Burial: - When a person is buried, their body is made into a mummy, this is called mummification. - It took around 70 days for the mummification to work. - The organs that were put into jars were buried in the tomb with the body. - The heart is never removed from the body because it is needed to enter into the afterlife. The heart is thought to be the part of the person that has the most life. - When a body is taken to be embalmed, this is usually done by a priest. What Did You Learn? - What is an Ancient Egyptians burial? An Ancient Egyptian burial is the process of preparing the body for mummification. - Does the body actually get buried? Most of the time the Ancient Egyptians were not buried but they were put into tombs. - Why was it important for the body to be mummified? The body had to be mummified because according to Ancient Egyptian culture, the person could not make it to the afterlife if their body was not mummified. - What is another word for mummification? Embalming is another word for mummification, this means the body is prepared so that it does not decay. - Why was a mask and name tag used on the person and the coffin? The mask and name tag was used on the person and the coffin because the Ba and Ka which was part of a person’s soul, had to be able to find each other and the body and it could only do that with a mask and a name written somewhere.	1,198	ENGLISH	1
A century before Facebook executive Sheryl Sandberg urged working women to "lean in" by prioritizing their professional ambitions, journalist and activist Ida B. Wells risked her life by speaking out against lynching on both sides of the Atlantic. She fought for civil rights while she was single as well as after she wed at age 33. As reporter Nikole Hannah-Jones details in a feature for The New York Times, Wells was "a sharp-tongued career woman uninterested in being tied down." Indeed, she made a name for herself in the 19th century as one of America's very first famous career women. And she did not let love or romance distract her. Even after she met the man she would marry in 1895, attorney Ferdinand L. Barnett, she kept her focus on her professional life: "She postponed the wedding three times in order to keep up with her rigorous antilynching speaking schedule," writes Hannah-Jones. Wells did not stop working after she got married, either. Instead, she co-founded the NAACP. According to Hannah-Jones, Wells writes in her autobiography, "Having always been busy at some work of my own, I decided to continue to work as a journalist, for this was my first love. And might be said, my only love." She also kept her name, at least partially. Hannah-Jones tells CNBC, "Wells, who became Wells-Barnett after her marriage, was also one of the first American women to hyphenate her name, putting her well ahead of her time when it came to gender equality." Hannah-Jones adds, "Wells did not believe her gender made her work less important, nor did she believe that a woman needed to sacrifice her own career in deference to becoming a wife or a mother." 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Wells risked her life by speaking out against lynching on both sides of the Atlantic. She fought for civil rights while she was single as well as after she wed at age 33. As reporter Nikole Hannah-Jones details in a feature for The New York Times, Wells was "a sharp-tongued career woman uninterested in being tied down." Indeed, she made a name for herself in the 19th century as one of America's very first famous career women. And she did not let love or romance distract her. Even after she met the man she would marry in 1895, attorney Ferdinand L. Barnett, she kept her focus on her professional life: "She postponed the wedding three times in order to keep up with her rigorous antilynching speaking schedule," writes Hannah-Jones. Wells did not stop working after she got married, either. Instead, she co-founded the NAACP. According to Hannah-Jones, Wells writes in her autobiography, "Having always been busy at some work of my own, I decided to continue to work as a journalist, for this was my first love. And might be said, my only love." She also kept her name, at least partially. Hannah-Jones tells CNBC, "Wells, who became Wells-Barnett after her marriage, was also one of the first American women to hyphenate her name, putting her well ahead of her time when it came to gender equality." Hannah-Jones adds, "Wells did not believe her gender made her work less important, nor did she believe that a woman needed to sacrifice her own career in deference to becoming a wife or a mother." The New York Times featured the announcement of the Wells-Barnett marriage on page one under the headline, "Ida Wells married."	400	ENGLISH	1
In the 18th and 19th century there was a significant influx of convicts into the Australian penal colonies. The British had established settlements in Australia for use as Australian penal colonies so that the pressure could be taken off from the correctional facilities in England and the other commonwealth countries. In the 80 years after the establishment of the Australian penal colonies almost 165,000 convicts were sent to serve their sentence to Australia. However, the number of immigrants who came to Australia between 1851 to 1871, at the height of the gold rush, far superseded the measly number of convicts who were sent to the penal colonies in the country. In 1852 alone an astounding 370,000 immigrants reached the Australian shores in search of their fortunes; this number alone is twice the number of convicts that were sent to the Australian penal colonies. By 1871, the immigrant population had reached an overwhelming 1.7 million from a 430,000. The last convicts were shipped to Australia in 1868. The works of Charles Dickens are probably the most appropriate indication of the social condition in England in the 19th century. Poor living conditions, abject poverty, child labor and social injustice were rampant in the country; the conditions were too horrific even for some government officials and this is what led to the introduction of the first law against child labor. During the revolution of the American colonies, London was bustling with unemployed people often languishing on a stupor brought on by cheap gin. Crime had become a bane for the peace of the city. To augment the problem, Britain did not have penitentiaries to hold the miscreants because these were often viewed as an overtly American concept. However, surprisingly in a country that frowned upon the concept of penitentiaries it was acceptable to punish a person with the death penalty for the pettiest of crimes such as stealing gold worth five shillings; even children were not spared the brunt of this cruel law. Fortunately, the Bloody code ended in 1800’s after the lawmakers thought the punishment to be very harsh. However, a recourse had to be found to punish the miscreants albeit less severely so that potential criminals could be stopped in their tracks. The Industrial Revolution and the rise of petty crimes in the entire continent further compounded the problem, which led the government to seriously consider the establishment of a facility that could hold these petty criminals and this led to the establishment of the Australian penal colonies. It was common for criminals to be faced with deportation both in cases of petty theft as well as heinous crimes.	<urn:uuid:f5da5685-0aeb-4b8b-a2da-bde75713e62a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://globerove.com/australia/australian-penal-colonies/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00513.warc.gz	en	0.984329	518	3.90625	4	[ 0.021455559879541397, -0.10023502260446548, 0.2966364324092865, -0.04026069492101669, 0.037568770349025726, 0.036572813987731934, -0.15133845806121826, -0.15126273036003113, -0.056090936064720154, 0.26939263939857483, 0.3506230115890503, -0.26123252511024475, -0.1499766856431961, 0.3317304849624634, -0.6360201835632324, 0.4293171763420105, -0.7871659994125366, -0.16414391994476318, -0.6544629335403442, 0.08147004246711731, 0.3029519319534302, -0.06288483738899231, -0.4806048572063446, -0.35980331897735596, 0.016389593482017517, 0.37558239698410034, 0.19703340530395508, -0.33496445417404175, 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The British had established settlements in Australia for use as Australian penal colonies so that the pressure could be taken off from the correctional facilities in England and the other commonwealth countries. In the 80 years after the establishment of the Australian penal colonies almost 165,000 convicts were sent to serve their sentence to Australia. However, the number of immigrants who came to Australia between 1851 to 1871, at the height of the gold rush, far superseded the measly number of convicts who were sent to the penal colonies in the country. In 1852 alone an astounding 370,000 immigrants reached the Australian shores in search of their fortunes; this number alone is twice the number of convicts that were sent to the Australian penal colonies. By 1871, the immigrant population had reached an overwhelming 1.7 million from a 430,000. The last convicts were shipped to Australia in 1868. The works of Charles Dickens are probably the most appropriate indication of the social condition in England in the 19th century. Poor living conditions, abject poverty, child labor and social injustice were rampant in the country; the conditions were too horrific even for some government officials and this is what led to the introduction of the first law against child labor. During the revolution of the American colonies, London was bustling with unemployed people often languishing on a stupor brought on by cheap gin. Crime had become a bane for the peace of the city. To augment the problem, Britain did not have penitentiaries to hold the miscreants because these were often viewed as an overtly American concept. However, surprisingly in a country that frowned upon the concept of penitentiaries it was acceptable to punish a person with the death penalty for the pettiest of crimes such as stealing gold worth five shillings; even children were not spared the brunt of this cruel law. Fortunately, the Bloody code ended in 1800’s after the lawmakers thought the punishment to be very harsh. However, a recourse had to be found to punish the miscreants albeit less severely so that potential criminals could be stopped in their tracks. The Industrial Revolution and the rise of petty crimes in the entire continent further compounded the problem, which led the government to seriously consider the establishment of a facility that could hold these petty criminals and this led to the establishment of the Australian penal colonies. It was common for criminals to be faced with deportation both in cases of petty theft as well as heinous crimes.	560	ENGLISH	1
The ages in the past centuries mainly depended on the castle houses. Castles were certain type of structured that were build in the early middle ages and whose function was mainly for the residential of the loyal families. These loyal families included the kings, queens and other polities in power. The castle structures provided a place for the military to conduct their operations and also a place for their hide outs. The materials that were used in the construction of the castle structures included the timbers and stones. To the middle ages of the human race, the castle structures were of many benefits to them and also the benefits of the structures has spread to the generation of the day. The advantage of the castle structures is that they were economical and cheap to construct during the middle ages. Easy accessibility of the construction materials of these castles was present. These materials included the stones and the timber. The timber for the purpose of construction were easily accessible because there were a lot of trees in those days. The stones used in the castles were also found easily. The construction of the structures in a speedy manner and also saving the costs of construction was the benefit of constructing these castle structures. The advantage of the castle structures is that they were constricted with strong materials that were very ideal for protection. The protection of the ruling authorities and the military was the basic function of the castle structures in the middle ages. They were therefore made of heavy and strong materials that greatly necessitated their primary function. The timber and stones that were used in the construction if the castles were strong and therefore the enemy could not access the facility easily. The castle structures had very high defensive capabilities that was essential for the kings, queen and other ruling authorities to reside in them. The castle structures were constructed in ways that they were durable. The castle structures were designed in a way that it could remain operational for a long time and therefore serve the community members and the society for a longer time. The materials that could not be damaged easily were chosen by the early builders. The castles were constructed in a method that could make them strong and therefore could not collapse easily. This can be supported by the existence of many castle houses in the present days that also shows the durability aspects in them. The current generation has also benefited from the castle structures. The structures are used in culture identification hence their importance. The use of these structures in the current days is explain to others in the nation about their history. The economic growth of a nation has been boosted by the increased tourism profit that has been caused by people travelling from far to visit these structures. The Beginner’s Guide to Tips for The Average Joe	<urn:uuid:0e300fd8-26a4-48cc-b5bd-6164fe6199ec>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://kantandaieto.info/5-takeaways-that-i-learned-about-11/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00467.warc.gz	en	0.990822	532	3.609375	4	[ -0.4521610140800476, 0.3811752200126648, 0.5405234694480896, 0.011657411232590675, 0.1502082347869873, -0.09054677188396454, 0.05236615985631943, -0.2770029306411743, -0.26664644479751587, -0.15974095463752747, -0.1835840940475464, 0.10917757451534271, 0.14253713190555573, 0.16358691453933716, 0.15422925353050232, 0.15854273736476898, -0.5653335452079773, 0.3072745203971863, -0.4959278106689453, 0.5109786987304688, 0.31718236207962036, -0.4048900604248047, 0.11612442880868912, 0.08565402030944824, 0.2330191284418106, 0.11569925397634506, -0.1303826868534088, 0.1612391173839569, -0.08181414008140564, -1.2295664548873901, 0.1577736884355545, -0.27415260672569275, 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Castles were certain type of structured that were build in the early middle ages and whose function was mainly for the residential of the loyal families. These loyal families included the kings, queens and other polities in power. The castle structures provided a place for the military to conduct their operations and also a place for their hide outs. The materials that were used in the construction of the castle structures included the timbers and stones. To the middle ages of the human race, the castle structures were of many benefits to them and also the benefits of the structures has spread to the generation of the day. The advantage of the castle structures is that they were economical and cheap to construct during the middle ages. Easy accessibility of the construction materials of these castles was present. These materials included the stones and the timber. The timber for the purpose of construction were easily accessible because there were a lot of trees in those days. The stones used in the castles were also found easily. The construction of the structures in a speedy manner and also saving the costs of construction was the benefit of constructing these castle structures. The advantage of the castle structures is that they were constricted with strong materials that were very ideal for protection. The protection of the ruling authorities and the military was the basic function of the castle structures in the middle ages. They were therefore made of heavy and strong materials that greatly necessitated their primary function. The timber and stones that were used in the construction if the castles were strong and therefore the enemy could not access the facility easily. The castle structures had very high defensive capabilities that was essential for the kings, queen and other ruling authorities to reside in them. The castle structures were constructed in ways that they were durable. The castle structures were designed in a way that it could remain operational for a long time and therefore serve the community members and the society for a longer time. The materials that could not be damaged easily were chosen by the early builders. The castles were constructed in a method that could make them strong and therefore could not collapse easily. This can be supported by the existence of many castle houses in the present days that also shows the durability aspects in them. The current generation has also benefited from the castle structures. The structures are used in culture identification hence their importance. The use of these structures in the current days is explain to others in the nation about their history. The economic growth of a nation has been boosted by the increased tourism profit that has been caused by people travelling from far to visit these structures. The Beginner’s Guide to Tips for The Average Joe	527	ENGLISH	1
Sociocracy was inspired by Plato's ideal state ruled by the thinkers.Members of the first thirteen Familiae of Atlantis had been interested in pursuit of both knowledge and wisdom, so it had been them who established the Ton, caste of philosophers. They were responsible for creating the Rules of Society that ensured progress and prosperity for all civii. Both the Societas and the Operativa consisted of the descendants of the Ton's companions on the journey and of the settlers from the second and third waves. The Familiae of the Societas decided to divide into castes with different responsibilities. They were executives, custodes, protectores, and provisores. Together they ensured that the Rules of Society were obeyed and actually worked towards progress and prosperity for all civii. As no state can exist, not to mention prosper, without production, Operativa were creating goods and provisions for the well-being of all. As it has been established, these three groups were co-dependent. The Ton secured social justice so that no group would be oppressed, but could as easily reduce freedoms in the name of well-being. The Societas could influence Ton to execute or prevent changes ; they could also execute control over Operativa as they oversaw the transfer of means. And the Operativa could either further the development of the Atlantis, or stop progress by refusing to work towards the greater good. Naturally, there was no human community that consisted only of the perfect people. The ones who were ill, disabled, unable or unwilling to work were taken care of by the Society, provided they adhered to the Rules. And the Rules dictated they were to live in the community centers where all their needs would be seen to. The ones who consciously broke the Rules were disgraced. However, the Society always hoped for their redemption and more often than not Familia of the Ton or of the Societas vouched for them and in return, the disgraced Innominus swore fealty to the Familia, until their debt to Society was paid. Of course, in some cases that would be unacceptable by the Society and those Innomini - who usually commited crimes - were also institutionalised. As it was, the Society worked. So claimed its civii who visited other countries and had a chance to compare sociocracy with other systems. Also foreigners who travelled to Atlantis, and newcomers who migrated here, agreed that in such a small state this system was perfect as it evolved along with the Society faster than any other.	<urn:uuid:65f3f480-f091-4c93-b36c-14cffda39f2a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldanvil.com/w/atlantis-utopia-mcu-juladc/map/8ca09389-990d-46b7-a672-e64af65ca678	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00524.warc.gz	en	0.985093	516	3.34375	3	[ -0.06934855878353119, 0.20141032338142395, 0.06097940355539322, -0.23320014774799347, -0.7270928621292114, 0.06496809422969818, 0.1474834680557251, 0.42143160104751587, 0.1660328507423401, -0.15844018757343292, 0.001760958693921566, -0.16604577004909515, 0.14313609898090363, 0.32740652561187744, -0.020367877557873726, 0.06143590062856674, -0.29233378171920776, 0.31973591446876526, -0.6417282819747925, 0.5366726517677307, 0.672749936580658, -0.48305201530456543, -0.3464471697807312, 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-0.33659523725509644, 0.1478969156742096, 0.01810121349990368, 0.051885537803173065, -0.15233442187309265, 0.0707332044839859, -0.04259827733039856, -0.6296883821487427, 0.04951699078083038, 0.3186761140823364, 0.1907643973827362, 0.9452901482582092, -0.013831409625709057, -0.27355295419692993, -0.10274000465869904, 0.24515971541404724, 0.5125445127487183, -0.3223463296890259, 0.16181910037994385, -0.4415479898452759, -0.3278579115867615, -0.0050806524232029915, 0.07819299399852753, -0.5785591006278992, 0.13740314543247223, 0.19280438125133514, 0.007235086988657713, -0.2511717677116394, 0.14283086359500885, 0.32117217779159546, 0.06966175138950348, -0.10625343024730682 ]	1	Sociocracy was inspired by Plato's ideal state ruled by the thinkers.Members of the first thirteen Familiae of Atlantis had been interested in pursuit of both knowledge and wisdom, so it had been them who established the Ton, caste of philosophers. They were responsible for creating the Rules of Society that ensured progress and prosperity for all civii. Both the Societas and the Operativa consisted of the descendants of the Ton's companions on the journey and of the settlers from the second and third waves. The Familiae of the Societas decided to divide into castes with different responsibilities. They were executives, custodes, protectores, and provisores. Together they ensured that the Rules of Society were obeyed and actually worked towards progress and prosperity for all civii. As no state can exist, not to mention prosper, without production, Operativa were creating goods and provisions for the well-being of all. As it has been established, these three groups were co-dependent. The Ton secured social justice so that no group would be oppressed, but could as easily reduce freedoms in the name of well-being. The Societas could influence Ton to execute or prevent changes ; they could also execute control over Operativa as they oversaw the transfer of means. And the Operativa could either further the development of the Atlantis, or stop progress by refusing to work towards the greater good. Naturally, there was no human community that consisted only of the perfect people. The ones who were ill, disabled, unable or unwilling to work were taken care of by the Society, provided they adhered to the Rules. And the Rules dictated they were to live in the community centers where all their needs would be seen to. The ones who consciously broke the Rules were disgraced. However, the Society always hoped for their redemption and more often than not Familia of the Ton or of the Societas vouched for them and in return, the disgraced Innominus swore fealty to the Familia, until their debt to Society was paid. Of course, in some cases that would be unacceptable by the Society and those Innomini - who usually commited crimes - were also institutionalised. As it was, the Society worked. So claimed its civii who visited other countries and had a chance to compare sociocracy with other systems. Also foreigners who travelled to Atlantis, and newcomers who migrated here, agreed that in such a small state this system was perfect as it evolved along with the Society faster than any other.	500	ENGLISH	1
Camp Thomas was a United States Regular Army training facility located in North Columbus, Ohio (now Columbus), during the American Civil War. It was primarily used to organize and train new infantry regiments for service in the Western Theater. With the outbreak of the Civil War and the bombardment of Fort Sumter in South Carolina, President Abraham Lincoln called for 100,000 volunteers to put down the growing rebellion. Colonel Henry B. Carrington had been commissioned to raise troops for the expanded United States Army in Ohio, Indiana, and Pennsylvania. In July 1861, he established a training camp on the Solomon Beers farm along the Delaware Road, four miles north of the city of Columbus. He named the new facility "Camp Thomas" in honor of Colonel Lorenzo Thomas, the Adjutant General of the U.S. Army. Camp Thomas augmented the nearby Camp Chase, a similar military camp established for the state's regiments raised for the volunteer Union Army. The camp was located on property owned by Soloman Beers, on the east side of High Street, south of Hudson Temporary structures were erected for the new camp's headquarters, as well as the guard room and hospital. Streets were lined out and tents erected as shelters for the incoming new recruits, who began arriving in mid-August. Among the prominent officers at Camp Thomas during the war was Captain William J. Fetterman, who arrived five days after Carrington opened the camp. He would later be killed and his troops massacred by Sioux Indians. Major William Axton Stokes, later a leading Philadelphia attorney, for a period commanded Camp Thomas. 18th U.S. InfantryEdit For most of the war, Camp Thomas served as the headquarters for the 18th U.S. Infantry, with the roster of the First Battalion being filled by Colonel Carrington and his recruiters in early September. Later in the month, Carrington organized the Second Battalion of six additional companies. In October, General-in-Chief Winfield Scott arrived in Columbus to tour the camp and review the new regiment. The 18th Infantry drilled at the camp for several weeks before moving to the front lines in Kentucky. A similar camp was authorized by Scott at Perryville, Maryland, to train regiments for duty in the Eastern Theater. On 3 November 1861, a battalion of the 16th U.S. Infantry under Major Sidney Coolidge arrived at Camp Thomas after its home base, Camp Slemmer in Chicago, Illinois, was closed. Additional recruits arrived and, by the end of the month, two additional companies had been raised to join the four from Illinois. The camp remained active throughout the war as headquarters for the 18th U.S. Infantry, and served as a training base for fresh recruits needed to refill the ranks after significant combat losses at battles such as Stones River. (The 16th U.S. Infantry moved its base to Fort Ontario in New York.) For most of the war, Camp Thomas was under the jurisdiction of Brig. Gen. John S. Mason. A few volunteer regiments and artillery batteries, such as the 22nd Ohio Battery, also trained at Camp Thomas for various periods. Frequent attempts were made to convince the Army to erect more permanent structures than tents and the three canvas-roofed timber buildings, but these were denied. Columbus officials hoped that brick or stone buildings would prove more lasting (and keep the base open after the war); they also wanted a military cemetery established for the dead of the 18th U.S. Infantry. Nothing came of the plans. Following the Civil War, the camp was decommissioned. By order of the Secretary of War, Camp Thomas was discontinued as a recruiting depot for the Regular Army early in October 1866. Buildings erected for the camp were sold, with some converted to houses in the vicinity of the camp. By 1900 most traces of the camp were essentially gone. The final known (and documented) wooden structure from the camp (that had been used as a barber shop well into the late 20th Century) was razed in the early 1990s. - Johnson, p. 20. - "Columbus Civil War camps housed soldiers, prisoners". thisweeknews.com. - Lee, Volume II, p. 133.	<urn:uuid:6fe0b6d2-fbea-4529-8d38-1e6a3ec57199>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_Thomas	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00043.warc.gz	en	0.981502	869	3.46875	3	[ -0.1588686853647232, 0.285915732383728, 0.26001960039138794, 0.2091600000858307, 0.004115723073482513, 0.18157240748405457, -0.1510811448097229, -0.07406456768512726, -0.27918297052383423, -0.47371864318847656, 0.3930932879447937, -0.4008342921733856, -0.1395130157470703, 0.5369271039962769, -0.1371593177318573, -0.19151994585990906, -0.3115733861923218, 0.11790278553962708, -0.47009795904159546, 0.13225123286247253, 0.26087239384651184, 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0.34879082441329956, 0.7465856075286865, -0.42116934061050415, 0.18513019382953644, 0.18593545258045197, 0.5141454339027405, -0.31885015964508057, -0.27782389521598816, -0.21446582674980164, -0.9165208339691162, 0.016701815649867058, 0.056139130145311356, -0.21176281571388245, 0.3840445280075073, 0.12449013441801071, 0.46011608839035034, -0.5218675136566162, 0.17594784498214722, -0.11167275905609131, -0.2613013982772827, -0.238730788230896, -0.07021556794643402, -0.0943659245967865, 0.4316863715648651, 0.5275446176528931, -0.29470473527908325, -0.2475302815437317, -0.19302180409431458, 0.5950215458869934, -0.16409707069396973, -0.31679365038871765, 0.145144522190094, -0.028961744159460068, 0.31562304496765137 ]	1	Camp Thomas was a United States Regular Army training facility located in North Columbus, Ohio (now Columbus), during the American Civil War. It was primarily used to organize and train new infantry regiments for service in the Western Theater. With the outbreak of the Civil War and the bombardment of Fort Sumter in South Carolina, President Abraham Lincoln called for 100,000 volunteers to put down the growing rebellion. Colonel Henry B. Carrington had been commissioned to raise troops for the expanded United States Army in Ohio, Indiana, and Pennsylvania. In July 1861, he established a training camp on the Solomon Beers farm along the Delaware Road, four miles north of the city of Columbus. He named the new facility "Camp Thomas" in honor of Colonel Lorenzo Thomas, the Adjutant General of the U.S. Army. Camp Thomas augmented the nearby Camp Chase, a similar military camp established for the state's regiments raised for the volunteer Union Army. The camp was located on property owned by Soloman Beers, on the east side of High Street, south of Hudson Temporary structures were erected for the new camp's headquarters, as well as the guard room and hospital. Streets were lined out and tents erected as shelters for the incoming new recruits, who began arriving in mid-August. Among the prominent officers at Camp Thomas during the war was Captain William J. Fetterman, who arrived five days after Carrington opened the camp. He would later be killed and his troops massacred by Sioux Indians. Major William Axton Stokes, later a leading Philadelphia attorney, for a period commanded Camp Thomas. 18th U.S. InfantryEdit For most of the war, Camp Thomas served as the headquarters for the 18th U.S. Infantry, with the roster of the First Battalion being filled by Colonel Carrington and his recruiters in early September. Later in the month, Carrington organized the Second Battalion of six additional companies. In October, General-in-Chief Winfield Scott arrived in Columbus to tour the camp and review the new regiment. The 18th Infantry drilled at the camp for several weeks before moving to the front lines in Kentucky. A similar camp was authorized by Scott at Perryville, Maryland, to train regiments for duty in the Eastern Theater. On 3 November 1861, a battalion of the 16th U.S. Infantry under Major Sidney Coolidge arrived at Camp Thomas after its home base, Camp Slemmer in Chicago, Illinois, was closed. Additional recruits arrived and, by the end of the month, two additional companies had been raised to join the four from Illinois. The camp remained active throughout the war as headquarters for the 18th U.S. Infantry, and served as a training base for fresh recruits needed to refill the ranks after significant combat losses at battles such as Stones River. (The 16th U.S. Infantry moved its base to Fort Ontario in New York.) For most of the war, Camp Thomas was under the jurisdiction of Brig. Gen. John S. Mason. A few volunteer regiments and artillery batteries, such as the 22nd Ohio Battery, also trained at Camp Thomas for various periods. Frequent attempts were made to convince the Army to erect more permanent structures than tents and the three canvas-roofed timber buildings, but these were denied. Columbus officials hoped that brick or stone buildings would prove more lasting (and keep the base open after the war); they also wanted a military cemetery established for the dead of the 18th U.S. Infantry. Nothing came of the plans. Following the Civil War, the camp was decommissioned. By order of the Secretary of War, Camp Thomas was discontinued as a recruiting depot for the Regular Army early in October 1866. Buildings erected for the camp were sold, with some converted to houses in the vicinity of the camp. By 1900 most traces of the camp were essentially gone. The final known (and documented) wooden structure from the camp (that had been used as a barber shop well into the late 20th Century) was razed in the early 1990s. - Johnson, p. 20. - "Columbus Civil War camps housed soldiers, prisoners". thisweeknews.com. - Lee, Volume II, p. 133.	894	ENGLISH	1
BlurbTitus Andronicus is a tragedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written between 1588 and 1593, probably in collaboration with George Peele. It is thought to be Shakespeare's first tragedy, and is often seen as his attempt to emulate the violent and bloody revenge plays of his contemporaries, which were extremely popular with audiences throughout the sixteenth century. The play is set during the latter days of the Roman Empire and tells the fictional story of Titus, a general in the Roman army, who is engaged in a cycle of revenge with Tamora, Queen of the Goths. It is Shakespeare's bloodiest and most violent work and traditionally was one of his least respected plays. Although it was extremely popular in its day, by the later seventeenth century it had fallen out of favour. In the Victorian era, it was disapproved of primarily because of what was considered to be a distasteful use of graphic violence, but from around the middle of the twentieth century its reputation began to improve. 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0.46762844920158386, 0.1807248890399933, -0.08390174806118011, 0.37096109986305237, 0.30433720350265503, -0.40768811106681824, 0.601586103439331, 0.6274642944335938, -0.22713838517665863, -0.2402954399585724, -0.16757377982139587, 0.35229891538619995, -0.367351770401001, 0.10207272320985794, 0.45185616612434387, 0.2060721516609192, -0.25440067052841187, -0.07795216888189316, -0.2105282098054886, 0.1754733771085739, 0.29510223865509033, -0.0032615785021334887, -0.18499067425727844, 0.30975112318992615, -0.30387723445892334, 0.28902468085289, 0.18626768887043 ]	2	BlurbTitus Andronicus is a tragedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written between 1588 and 1593, probably in collaboration with George Peele. It is thought to be Shakespeare's first tragedy, and is often seen as his attempt to emulate the violent and bloody revenge plays of his contemporaries, which were extremely popular with audiences throughout the sixteenth century. The play is set during the latter days of the Roman Empire and tells the fictional story of Titus, a general in the Roman army, who is engaged in a cycle of revenge with Tamora, Queen of the Goths. It is Shakespeare's bloodiest and most violent work and traditionally was one of his least respected plays. Although it was extremely popular in its day, by the later seventeenth century it had fallen out of favour. In the Victorian era, it was disapproved of primarily because of what was considered to be a distasteful use of graphic violence, but from around the middle of the twentieth century its reputation began to improve. Member Reviews Write your own review Be the first person to reviewLog in to comment	229	ENGLISH	1
Kent Historical Museum Nancy Simpson, City of Kent Landmarks Commissioner and Kent Museum President 855 E Smith St, Kent, WA 98030 Hours: Thursday - Saturday The city of Kent, located 15 miles southeast of Seattle, was home to some of the earliest white settlers in King County, and was the first city in King County to incorporate outside of Seattle. Originally an agricultural community, it has since developed into an industrial center. The Osceola Mudflow changed the course of the White River, sending it north. Over the centuries, the river sluiced through the mud bump, filling the valley with alluvium. By the time the first white settlers arrived in the mid-1800s, the valley was filled with rich, arable land perfect for farming. Native Americans had been fishing, hunting, and gathering berries in the valley and surrounding plateaus for years. Many Indians welcomed the pioneers, for the newcomers broadened their trading potential. But as more settlers arrived in the valley, the Indians' access to the river and surrounding land diminished. Tensions flared. On October 27, 1855, an Indian ambush killed nine people, including women and children. A few children escaped and were helped towards Seattle by local natives who were sympathetic toward them. This began what became known as the Seattle Indian Wars. Troops were brought into the area, and within a few months the Indians had retreated and the war was quickly over. A new treaty was written which provided the establishment of the Muckleshoot reservation, which is the only Indian reservation now within the boundaries of King County. The White River tribes collectively became know as the Muckleshoot tribe. Farmers again took to the land, raising crops of potatoes, onions, and other vegetables. Animal stock was brought in to pasture on untilled land. By the late 1870s, much of the valley had been cleared, and a new cash crop was cultivated - - hops, a bitter plant in the hemp family used to flavor beer. The hops craze took the valley by storm. Cheap to produce, hops commanded a high price on the market due to a blight in Europe. Hop farms and hop kilns blossomed throughout the valley, making many farmers wealthy men. For 10 years hops were king, until aphids destroyed most of the crop in 1891. Nevertheless, hops were the catalyst that transformed transportation routes in the valley. In 1883, work began on the rail line through the valley that connected up with the Northern Pacific, then owned by Henry Villard. But Villard had business troubles, and resigned before the line was completed. Pro-Tacoma, anti-Seattle interests acquired the Northern Pacific, and the branch line soon became know as the Orphan Road, die to its neglect. After much legal wrangling, the line was brought into service, albeit poorly. King County riders complained, and the Northern Pacific again shut it down. It re-opened when the rail line was threatened with land grant revocation. It wasn't until 1887, when the Northern Pacific moved its terminus from Tacoma to Seattle, that the Orphan Road became a reliable means of transportation in the valley. In July 1888, John Alexander and Ida Guiberson filed the first plat. Other community members made additions over the next two years, and in 1890 citizens expressed a wish to incorporate. On May 28, 1890, the town of Kent became the first city in King County outside of Seattle to do so. Kent was riding high, but the ruination of the hop industry in 1891 changed all that. Then, in 1893, a nationwide economic collapse made things even worse. Rich farmer became paupers practically overnight. Even Thomas Alvord was declared insolvent, and his ranch and belongings were sold at a public auction. Nevertheless, the town rode out its woes. By the turn of the century, Kent had banks, schools, churches, stores, newspapers, and social organizations. - - all the ingredients for a growing community. In 1902, interurban rail service came to town. Farmers received a break in 1906, when a major flood diverted the White River southwest through Pierce County. Before this, the White River merged with the Green River near Auburn, and both rivers caused havoc by flooding every year. Now, Kent farmers only has the Green River to content with. During this period, Kent farmers also played an important role in Seattle history. Upon bringing their produce into the city, the farmers had troubles with wholesale dealers who defrauded them and kept prices high. Because of this, Pike Place Market opened on August 17, 1907, so that growers could sell their fruits and vegetables directly to consumers. First-generation Japanese farmers, the Issei, were able to lease farmland from American citizens. By 1920, the Issei in the Kent Valley supplied half the fresh milk consumed in Seattle, and more than 70 percent of the fruit and vegetables for Western Washington. When the Great Depression struck, Kent suffered, but took things in stride. In 1934, the town held a lettuce festival, which drew more than 25,000 people to the community. Lettuce-related floats paraded through town, a lettuce queen was chosen, and 5,000 people got to eat the "world's largest salad." A good time was had by all. Between May 8 and May 11, 1942, entire families, some of whom had lived in the valley for more than 30 years, were place on trains out of town. Since the Nissei were born on American soil, those with property were allowed to sell it or turn it over to the government for holding. After evacuation, the government redistributed 1,600 acres of farmland to other farmers. Farming remained a top priority during the war, but with the removal of Japanese Americans and the loss of young men into battle, labor shortages arose. With women helping out in the defense industry, school children were enlisted to help out on the farms. After the war was over, very few Japanese Americans returned to the valley, in part due to continued racial prejudice expressed against them by white resident, following Pearl Harbor. Meanwhile, changes in water management on the Green River brought changes to the landscape, but not in a way that farmers were expecting. Initially, valley farmers couldn't have been happier, having had to deal with annual flooding for years. Construction of Howard A. Hanson dam was completed in 1962, and has prevented a major flood ever since. But instead of opening up land for farming, developers and industrial giants swooped in and began to transform the valley. Adding to the changes was the creation of the Valley Freeway, which was given the green light in 1957. Interstate-5 on the western rim of the valley was completed in 1966. The City of Kent, seeing the changes on the horizon, began annexing as much land as possible in order to expand its tax base. The physical size of Kent grew from one square mile in 1953 to 12.7 square miles in 1960. In just a few years, Kent had transformed from an agricultural community to an industrial center. The large number of businesses added to Kent's tax base. The City of Kent has been able to spend a sizable amount of money on their park system, making it one of the largest in the county. The city is also a regional leader in education and the arts. In existence for more than 110 years, the city of Kent has seen many changes, from hop farming all the way to moon buggies. Even with all of the transformations that have occurred, fruit and vegetable stands can still be found on the backroads around the city. Smith Brothers Dairy still sells milk, and downtown Kent still has an old-world charm. At least for now. By Alan J. Stein, posted 9/24/2001 HistoryLink.org Essay 3587.	<urn:uuid:03a20aa5-ba4c-440f-a041-865125af3f89>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.kentwa.gov/residents/kent-history	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00129.warc.gz	en	0.982599	1,603	3.515625	4	[ 0.2707798480987549, 0.07773487269878387, 0.42491263151168823, 0.01506950706243515, -0.23524075746536255, 0.16572493314743042, -0.049517787992954254, 0.16421902179718018, -0.19001291692256927, 0.33945363759994507, 0.0156575758010149, -0.36744773387908936, -0.0923018604516983, 0.25828829407691956, -0.49755042791366577, 0.28711363673210144, -0.30094510316848755, 0.4033968448638916, -0.5794907808303833, -0.03332674875855446, 0.18033090233802795, -0.282459557056427, 0.2141176015138626, -0.28378474712371826, 0.22976015508174896, 0.3676271438598633, 0.06858406960964203, -0.07862213999032974, -0.07855807989835739, -0.9176015257835388, 0.2774365544319153, -0.4137658476829529, 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0.12329080700874329, -0.3853299915790558, 0.7248033881187439, 0.25315216183662415, 0.6828173995018005, -0.6734524965286255, -0.0025864820927381516, 0.2469550371170044, 0.22452306747436523, -0.313584566116333, 0.09157304465770721, -0.14705702662467957, 0.08277229964733124, 0.24443155527114868, -0.4868776202201843, -0.6247736215591431, -0.17525097727775574, 0.29585474729537964, 0.0843239426612854, -0.2449977546930313, -0.10639792680740356, -0.25925761461257935, 0.3864733874797821 ]	2	Kent Historical Museum Nancy Simpson, City of Kent Landmarks Commissioner and Kent Museum President 855 E Smith St, Kent, WA 98030 Hours: Thursday - Saturday The city of Kent, located 15 miles southeast of Seattle, was home to some of the earliest white settlers in King County, and was the first city in King County to incorporate outside of Seattle. Originally an agricultural community, it has since developed into an industrial center. The Osceola Mudflow changed the course of the White River, sending it north. Over the centuries, the river sluiced through the mud bump, filling the valley with alluvium. By the time the first white settlers arrived in the mid-1800s, the valley was filled with rich, arable land perfect for farming. Native Americans had been fishing, hunting, and gathering berries in the valley and surrounding plateaus for years. Many Indians welcomed the pioneers, for the newcomers broadened their trading potential. But as more settlers arrived in the valley, the Indians' access to the river and surrounding land diminished. Tensions flared. On October 27, 1855, an Indian ambush killed nine people, including women and children. A few children escaped and were helped towards Seattle by local natives who were sympathetic toward them. This began what became known as the Seattle Indian Wars. Troops were brought into the area, and within a few months the Indians had retreated and the war was quickly over. A new treaty was written which provided the establishment of the Muckleshoot reservation, which is the only Indian reservation now within the boundaries of King County. The White River tribes collectively became know as the Muckleshoot tribe. Farmers again took to the land, raising crops of potatoes, onions, and other vegetables. Animal stock was brought in to pasture on untilled land. By the late 1870s, much of the valley had been cleared, and a new cash crop was cultivated - - hops, a bitter plant in the hemp family used to flavor beer. The hops craze took the valley by storm. Cheap to produce, hops commanded a high price on the market due to a blight in Europe. Hop farms and hop kilns blossomed throughout the valley, making many farmers wealthy men. For 10 years hops were king, until aphids destroyed most of the crop in 1891. Nevertheless, hops were the catalyst that transformed transportation routes in the valley. In 1883, work began on the rail line through the valley that connected up with the Northern Pacific, then owned by Henry Villard. But Villard had business troubles, and resigned before the line was completed. Pro-Tacoma, anti-Seattle interests acquired the Northern Pacific, and the branch line soon became know as the Orphan Road, die to its neglect. After much legal wrangling, the line was brought into service, albeit poorly. King County riders complained, and the Northern Pacific again shut it down. It re-opened when the rail line was threatened with land grant revocation. It wasn't until 1887, when the Northern Pacific moved its terminus from Tacoma to Seattle, that the Orphan Road became a reliable means of transportation in the valley. In July 1888, John Alexander and Ida Guiberson filed the first plat. Other community members made additions over the next two years, and in 1890 citizens expressed a wish to incorporate. On May 28, 1890, the town of Kent became the first city in King County outside of Seattle to do so. Kent was riding high, but the ruination of the hop industry in 1891 changed all that. Then, in 1893, a nationwide economic collapse made things even worse. Rich farmer became paupers practically overnight. Even Thomas Alvord was declared insolvent, and his ranch and belongings were sold at a public auction. Nevertheless, the town rode out its woes. By the turn of the century, Kent had banks, schools, churches, stores, newspapers, and social organizations. - - all the ingredients for a growing community. In 1902, interurban rail service came to town. Farmers received a break in 1906, when a major flood diverted the White River southwest through Pierce County. Before this, the White River merged with the Green River near Auburn, and both rivers caused havoc by flooding every year. Now, Kent farmers only has the Green River to content with. During this period, Kent farmers also played an important role in Seattle history. Upon bringing their produce into the city, the farmers had troubles with wholesale dealers who defrauded them and kept prices high. Because of this, Pike Place Market opened on August 17, 1907, so that growers could sell their fruits and vegetables directly to consumers. First-generation Japanese farmers, the Issei, were able to lease farmland from American citizens. By 1920, the Issei in the Kent Valley supplied half the fresh milk consumed in Seattle, and more than 70 percent of the fruit and vegetables for Western Washington. When the Great Depression struck, Kent suffered, but took things in stride. In 1934, the town held a lettuce festival, which drew more than 25,000 people to the community. Lettuce-related floats paraded through town, a lettuce queen was chosen, and 5,000 people got to eat the "world's largest salad." A good time was had by all. Between May 8 and May 11, 1942, entire families, some of whom had lived in the valley for more than 30 years, were place on trains out of town. Since the Nissei were born on American soil, those with property were allowed to sell it or turn it over to the government for holding. After evacuation, the government redistributed 1,600 acres of farmland to other farmers. Farming remained a top priority during the war, but with the removal of Japanese Americans and the loss of young men into battle, labor shortages arose. With women helping out in the defense industry, school children were enlisted to help out on the farms. After the war was over, very few Japanese Americans returned to the valley, in part due to continued racial prejudice expressed against them by white resident, following Pearl Harbor. Meanwhile, changes in water management on the Green River brought changes to the landscape, but not in a way that farmers were expecting. Initially, valley farmers couldn't have been happier, having had to deal with annual flooding for years. Construction of Howard A. Hanson dam was completed in 1962, and has prevented a major flood ever since. But instead of opening up land for farming, developers and industrial giants swooped in and began to transform the valley. Adding to the changes was the creation of the Valley Freeway, which was given the green light in 1957. Interstate-5 on the western rim of the valley was completed in 1966. The City of Kent, seeing the changes on the horizon, began annexing as much land as possible in order to expand its tax base. The physical size of Kent grew from one square mile in 1953 to 12.7 square miles in 1960. In just a few years, Kent had transformed from an agricultural community to an industrial center. The large number of businesses added to Kent's tax base. The City of Kent has been able to spend a sizable amount of money on their park system, making it one of the largest in the county. The city is also a regional leader in education and the arts. In existence for more than 110 years, the city of Kent has seen many changes, from hop farming all the way to moon buggies. Even with all of the transformations that have occurred, fruit and vegetable stands can still be found on the backroads around the city. Smith Brothers Dairy still sells milk, and downtown Kent still has an old-world charm. At least for now. By Alan J. Stein, posted 9/24/2001 HistoryLink.org Essay 3587.	1,706	ENGLISH	1
Americans have lived with the familiar images of the “Old West” for more than two centuries. But for those who actually participated in the events of that past, the West was dynamic, unpredictable, and startlingly new. Native horse culture was only a few generations old by the time Lewis and Clark ventured west in 1804, and ever-building pressure from the East meant that the tribes’ territories and alliances remained in near-constant flux throughout the nineteenth century. The legends notwithstanding, Custer’s regiment in 1876 was anything but an assemblage of craggy-faced Marlboro men. Forty percent of the soldiers in Custer’s Seventh Cavalry had been born outside the United States in countries like Ireland, England, Germany, and Italy; of the Americans, almost all of them had grown up east of the Mississippi River. For this decidedly international collection of soldiers, the Plains were as strange and unworldly as the surface of the moon. Most of us were taught that the American frontier crept west like an inevitable tide. Instead of a line, the frontier was an ever-constricting zone: a region of convulsive, often unpredictable change across which the American people, aided and abetted by the military, lurched and leapt into new and potentially profitable lands. In 1876, there were no farms, ranches, towns, or even military bases in central and eastern Montana. For all practical and legal purposes, this was Indian territory. Just two years before, however, gold had been discovered in the nearby Black Hills by an expedition led by none other than George Custer. As prospectors flooded into the region, the U.S. government decided that it had no choice but to acquire the hills — by force if necessary — from the Indians. Instead of an effort to defend innocent American pioneers from Indian attack, the campaign against the Sioux and Cheyenne in the spring of 1876 was an unprovoked military invasion of an independent nation that already happened to exist within what came to be declared the United States. America was not the only place in the world where Western and indigenous peoples were coming into conflict in the late nineteenth century. Little Bighorn–like battles had been or were about to be fought in India, the Middle East, and Africa — most spectacularly, perhaps, at Isandlwana in 1879, when twenty-four thousand Zulus annihilated a British force of more than thirteen hundred men. And yet, there is something different about the American version of colonialism. Since the battles were not fought on a distant and colonized continent but within our own interior, we are living with the consequences every day. After four years of research and several trips to the battlefield, along with a memorable visit to the site of Sitting Bull’s cabin, I now know that nothing ended at the Little Bighorn. As a writer and a sailor, I have long been interested in what occurs within the behavioral laboratory of a ship at sea. The isolation, unpredictability, and inherent danger of life aboard a sailing vessel have a tendency to heighten the intensity of social interaction, particularly when it comes to the issue of leadership. So it was, I have since discovered, with both a regiment of cavalry and a nomadic Indian village on the northern plains in 1876 — two self-contained and highly structured communities under enormous stress. Sitting Bull had never seen the ocean, but as tensions mounted during the spring of 1876, he described his people in terms to which any mariner could relate. “We are,” he said, “an island of Indians in a lake of whites.” Late in life, one of George Custer’s officers, Frederick Benteen, also looked to the water when considering his often contentious relationship with his former commander. “There are many excellent ways of finding out the disposition and nature of a man,” Benteen wrote. “I know of no better way than having to live on shipboard with one for a series of years. . . . Next, in default of salt-water facilities . . . , campaign with a man in the cavalry, for say 10 or 20 years. . . . Thus I became acquainted with General Custer.” The fluidity of the sea, not the rigidity of irresistible law, characterizes human conduct, especially in the midst of a calamity. Even when people are bound by strict codes of behavior, their distinctive personalities have a way of asserting themselves. Instead of a faceless “clash of cultures,” the Battle of the Little Bighorn was fought by individual soldiers and warriors, each with his own story to tell. In the pages that follow I have attempted to do justice to those stories even as I tell the larger, ultimately tragic story of how two leaders and their followers embarked on two converging voyages across the river-ribbed interior of North America. The collision that occurred on June 25, 1876, resulted in three different battles with Sitting Bull’s village of Sioux and Cheyenne: one fought by Custer; another fought by his second-in-command, Major Marcus Reno; and yet another fought, for all intents and purposes, by Captain Frederick Benteen. Reno, Benteen, and a significant portion of their commands survived. Custer and every one of his officers and men were killed. Even before the battles were over, Reno and Benteen had begun to calculate how to put their actions in the best possible light. Perhaps not surprisingly, a subsequent court of inquiry only compounded the prevarications. Problems of evidence also plagued Native accounts. In the years after the battle, warriors were concerned that they might suffer some form of retribution if they didn’t tell their white inquisitors what they wanted to hear. Then there were the problems associated with the interpreters, many of whom had their own agendas. At times during my research, it seemed as if I had entered a hall of mirrors. Everywhere I turned there was yet another, fatally distorted account of the battle. Like Custer struggling to find a peak from which he could finally see around him, I searched desperately for a way to rise above the confusing welter of conflicting points of view and identify what really happened. During my third visit to the battlefield, in the summer of 2009, as I followed a winding, steep-sided ravine toward the Little Bighorn, I realized my mistake. It was not a question of rising above the evidence; it was a question of burrowing into the mystery. Custer and his men were last seen by their comrades galloping across a ridge before they disappeared into the seductive green hills. Not until two days later did the surviving members of the regiment find them: more than two hundred dead bodies, many of them hacked to pieces and bristling with arrows, putrefying in the summer sun. Amid this “scene of sickening, ghastly horror,” they found Custer lying face up across two of his men with, Private Thomas Coleman wrote, “a smile on his face.” Custer’s smile is the ultimate mystery of this story, the story of how America, the land of liberty and justice for all, became in its centennial year the nation of the Last Stand.	<urn:uuid:b5c5cc7f-a6bf-4341-a4e5-5752a84699f5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/04/books/excerpt-the-last-stand.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00545.warc.gz	en	0.980932	1,509	3.578125	4	[ -0.019632458686828613, 0.29000359773635864, 0.26537588238716125, 0.40947383642196655, -0.004795967135578394, 0.06013305112719536, -0.31469106674194336, -0.0784258246421814, -0.2986573576927185, -0.09642694890499115, 0.07077430188655853, 0.08756951987743378, 0.051549047231674194, 0.1609722077846527, -0.32792025804519653, 0.17334505915641785, -0.4251929521560669, 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But for those who actually participated in the events of that past, the West was dynamic, unpredictable, and startlingly new. Native horse culture was only a few generations old by the time Lewis and Clark ventured west in 1804, and ever-building pressure from the East meant that the tribes’ territories and alliances remained in near-constant flux throughout the nineteenth century. The legends notwithstanding, Custer’s regiment in 1876 was anything but an assemblage of craggy-faced Marlboro men. Forty percent of the soldiers in Custer’s Seventh Cavalry had been born outside the United States in countries like Ireland, England, Germany, and Italy; of the Americans, almost all of them had grown up east of the Mississippi River. For this decidedly international collection of soldiers, the Plains were as strange and unworldly as the surface of the moon. Most of us were taught that the American frontier crept west like an inevitable tide. Instead of a line, the frontier was an ever-constricting zone: a region of convulsive, often unpredictable change across which the American people, aided and abetted by the military, lurched and leapt into new and potentially profitable lands. In 1876, there were no farms, ranches, towns, or even military bases in central and eastern Montana. For all practical and legal purposes, this was Indian territory. Just two years before, however, gold had been discovered in the nearby Black Hills by an expedition led by none other than George Custer. As prospectors flooded into the region, the U.S. government decided that it had no choice but to acquire the hills — by force if necessary — from the Indians. Instead of an effort to defend innocent American pioneers from Indian attack, the campaign against the Sioux and Cheyenne in the spring of 1876 was an unprovoked military invasion of an independent nation that already happened to exist within what came to be declared the United States. America was not the only place in the world where Western and indigenous peoples were coming into conflict in the late nineteenth century. Little Bighorn–like battles had been or were about to be fought in India, the Middle East, and Africa — most spectacularly, perhaps, at Isandlwana in 1879, when twenty-four thousand Zulus annihilated a British force of more than thirteen hundred men. And yet, there is something different about the American version of colonialism. Since the battles were not fought on a distant and colonized continent but within our own interior, we are living with the consequences every day. After four years of research and several trips to the battlefield, along with a memorable visit to the site of Sitting Bull’s cabin, I now know that nothing ended at the Little Bighorn. As a writer and a sailor, I have long been interested in what occurs within the behavioral laboratory of a ship at sea. The isolation, unpredictability, and inherent danger of life aboard a sailing vessel have a tendency to heighten the intensity of social interaction, particularly when it comes to the issue of leadership. So it was, I have since discovered, with both a regiment of cavalry and a nomadic Indian village on the northern plains in 1876 — two self-contained and highly structured communities under enormous stress. Sitting Bull had never seen the ocean, but as tensions mounted during the spring of 1876, he described his people in terms to which any mariner could relate. “We are,” he said, “an island of Indians in a lake of whites.” Late in life, one of George Custer’s officers, Frederick Benteen, also looked to the water when considering his often contentious relationship with his former commander. “There are many excellent ways of finding out the disposition and nature of a man,” Benteen wrote. “I know of no better way than having to live on shipboard with one for a series of years. . . . Next, in default of salt-water facilities . . . , campaign with a man in the cavalry, for say 10 or 20 years. . . . Thus I became acquainted with General Custer.” The fluidity of the sea, not the rigidity of irresistible law, characterizes human conduct, especially in the midst of a calamity. Even when people are bound by strict codes of behavior, their distinctive personalities have a way of asserting themselves. Instead of a faceless “clash of cultures,” the Battle of the Little Bighorn was fought by individual soldiers and warriors, each with his own story to tell. In the pages that follow I have attempted to do justice to those stories even as I tell the larger, ultimately tragic story of how two leaders and their followers embarked on two converging voyages across the river-ribbed interior of North America. The collision that occurred on June 25, 1876, resulted in three different battles with Sitting Bull’s village of Sioux and Cheyenne: one fought by Custer; another fought by his second-in-command, Major Marcus Reno; and yet another fought, for all intents and purposes, by Captain Frederick Benteen. Reno, Benteen, and a significant portion of their commands survived. Custer and every one of his officers and men were killed. Even before the battles were over, Reno and Benteen had begun to calculate how to put their actions in the best possible light. Perhaps not surprisingly, a subsequent court of inquiry only compounded the prevarications. Problems of evidence also plagued Native accounts. In the years after the battle, warriors were concerned that they might suffer some form of retribution if they didn’t tell their white inquisitors what they wanted to hear. Then there were the problems associated with the interpreters, many of whom had their own agendas. At times during my research, it seemed as if I had entered a hall of mirrors. Everywhere I turned there was yet another, fatally distorted account of the battle. Like Custer struggling to find a peak from which he could finally see around him, I searched desperately for a way to rise above the confusing welter of conflicting points of view and identify what really happened. During my third visit to the battlefield, in the summer of 2009, as I followed a winding, steep-sided ravine toward the Little Bighorn, I realized my mistake. It was not a question of rising above the evidence; it was a question of burrowing into the mystery. Custer and his men were last seen by their comrades galloping across a ridge before they disappeared into the seductive green hills. Not until two days later did the surviving members of the regiment find them: more than two hundred dead bodies, many of them hacked to pieces and bristling with arrows, putrefying in the summer sun. Amid this “scene of sickening, ghastly horror,” they found Custer lying face up across two of his men with, Private Thomas Coleman wrote, “a smile on his face.” Custer’s smile is the ultimate mystery of this story, the story of how America, the land of liberty and justice for all, became in its centennial year the nation of the Last Stand.	1,494	ENGLISH	1
In William Shakespeare's tragedy Hamlet, revenge takes its foothold on the main character, Hamlet as he tries to avenge his father's death. Revenge is a kind of wild justice which man's typical nature runs toward (ERH). "The most tolerable sort of revenge is for those wrongs for which a law has not been set forth to remedy: but then let a man take heed the revenge be such, as there is no law to punish: else, a man's enemy is still beforehand, and it is two for one (Bacon)." In all tragedies, a crime is committed and for various reasons laws and justice are unable to punish the one who committed the crime. Thus, the individual who is the main character, namely Hamlet, goes through with the vengeful act in spite of the dire consequences assured to come. Firstly, Hamlet is approached by the ghost of his deceased father. He learns that his uncle has murdered his father. His mother is also consumed in the tragedy, in that she remarries to Hamlet's uncle in a rather brief period of time after the King's death. The incestuous relationship between his mother and his uncle also adds to Hamlet's mounting fury. The apparition then, is that from which Hamlet's revenge springs forth. . The first in Hamlet's series of changes is one of doubt. He somewhat doubts the apparition and therefore, devises a plan in which to prove whether his uncle is the true murderer. Hamlet puts on a play, "The Mousetrap" for the new King and Queen. In this play, Hamlet reenacts the way in which the apparition says he was killed. In the midst of the play, the King stands and walks out torn by rage. Hamlet no longer needs proof--the King's unsettled heart made the play unbearable; thus, Hamlet knew then the source from which his revenge stemmed. . Once the period of doubt had been passed by, Hamlet then entered a state seen by many as madness. He ranted incessantly about things which no one could conjure sense from. Two of his old friends Rosencrantz and Guildenstern were called forth to try to find the reason for his madness (Act II, Scene II).	<urn:uuid:8bb7a1e3-93fe-46b0-99de-002727243ef1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/76472.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00484.warc.gz	en	0.983947	468	3.5625	4	[ -0.23947523534297943, -0.018339117988944054, 0.2555122971534729, -0.28975018858909607, -0.3927812874317169, -0.16479724645614624, 0.7184052467346191, 0.11697106808423996, 0.047948576509952545, -0.16842961311340332, -0.0775323361158371, -0.1376657485961914, -0.22121800482273102, 0.06683019548654556, -0.3351064920425415, -0.12228871881961823, 0.047673702239990234, 0.8362197279930115, -0.6800330877304077, 0.14966322481632233, 0.29302045702934265, -0.08540014922618866, -0.1885169893503189, -0.3781995177268982, -0.012061514891684055, 0.11369587481021881, 0.18861597776412964, -0.32108747959136963, 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0.2273777723312378, 0.23609334230422974, -0.05029989033937454, -0.1484074592590332, 0.2677335739135742, -0.008851567283272743, -0.008229638449847698, 0.5861708521842957, 0.5558536052703857, -0.21020881831645966, -0.17179159820079803, 0.10359244793653488, 0.6518493890762329, -0.1925056278705597, 0.41398462653160095, 0.11356579512357712, 0.2546500265598297, -0.14230528473854065, -0.14388850331306458, -0.166756272315979, 0.2477329522371292, 0.29761210083961487, -0.2241491973400116, -0.0958283320069313, 0.8224904537200928, 0.38705918192863464, 0.45167627930641174, 0.021929048001766205 ]	3	In William Shakespeare's tragedy Hamlet, revenge takes its foothold on the main character, Hamlet as he tries to avenge his father's death. Revenge is a kind of wild justice which man's typical nature runs toward (ERH). "The most tolerable sort of revenge is for those wrongs for which a law has not been set forth to remedy: but then let a man take heed the revenge be such, as there is no law to punish: else, a man's enemy is still beforehand, and it is two for one (Bacon)." In all tragedies, a crime is committed and for various reasons laws and justice are unable to punish the one who committed the crime. Thus, the individual who is the main character, namely Hamlet, goes through with the vengeful act in spite of the dire consequences assured to come. Firstly, Hamlet is approached by the ghost of his deceased father. He learns that his uncle has murdered his father. His mother is also consumed in the tragedy, in that she remarries to Hamlet's uncle in a rather brief period of time after the King's death. The incestuous relationship between his mother and his uncle also adds to Hamlet's mounting fury. The apparition then, is that from which Hamlet's revenge springs forth. . The first in Hamlet's series of changes is one of doubt. He somewhat doubts the apparition and therefore, devises a plan in which to prove whether his uncle is the true murderer. Hamlet puts on a play, "The Mousetrap" for the new King and Queen. In this play, Hamlet reenacts the way in which the apparition says he was killed. In the midst of the play, the King stands and walks out torn by rage. Hamlet no longer needs proof--the King's unsettled heart made the play unbearable; thus, Hamlet knew then the source from which his revenge stemmed. . Once the period of doubt had been passed by, Hamlet then entered a state seen by many as madness. He ranted incessantly about things which no one could conjure sense from. Two of his old friends Rosencrantz and Guildenstern were called forth to try to find the reason for his madness (Act II, Scene II).	466	ENGLISH	1
While looking up family history I found an old German marriage document which specified a dowry of "1000 Franks." With that, the families in question were from the Suggental/Waldkirch area in what is today the German State of Baden-Württemberg in the northern parts of the "Black Forest." The two possibilities I can think of is that either they used Swiss or French Franks or Francs because they may have moved from either area, or there might have potentially been some sort of Swiss or French influence in the area. The latter, to me, does not seem as possible. Note that for the time period of interest there was no single German state, as we are talking not only long before the German unification of the mid Nineteenth Century but also well before the simplification of German states that occurred during the Napoleonic period. Consequently: Up to that time several dozen independent German States and cities issued their own coinage under their own rulers. Other common possible choices might have been either the Prussian Thaler or the Bavarian Gulden. The marriage contract was likely denominated in the currency that was kept in hand by the bride's father, as in that way currency exchange would be minimized. If the bride's father was selling property in order to raise the dowry amount, he would have negotiated a currency choice matching that of the expected sale, again to minimize currency exchange.	<urn:uuid:d470322a-5326-47d2-9d12-4f8d16c5122e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://history.stackexchange.com/questions/23911/in-the-late-18th-century-would-any-of-the-southwestern-area-of-germany-used-fra	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00520.warc.gz	en	0.980944	292	3.390625	3	[ -0.24053238332271576, 0.45904308557510376, -0.3215664029121399, -0.3341587483882904, 0.13876037299633026, -0.04452691972255707, -0.10058345645666122, -0.09428603947162628, -0.1396474391222, -0.3264855146408081, 0.03490938991308212, -0.4026165008544922, -0.09938257187604904, 0.36417704820632935, 0.0031597185879945755, -0.03839905560016632, -0.3016522526741028, 0.28098586201667786, -0.5568386316299438, 0.5501380562782288, 0.48227885365486145, 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0.2700997292995453, 0.11535289138555527, 0.043461211025714874, 0.5702678561210632, -0.49899595975875854, 0.10442421585321426, -0.04159603640437126, -0.0329195074737072, -0.06869596242904663, 0.15012367069721222, 0.06464327126741409, -0.6488044857978821, 0.06609438359737396, -0.2816360294818878, -0.4924314320087433, 0.8506335020065308, 0.3084343373775482, -0.08137054741382599, -0.06713246554136276, 0.14344894886016846, 0.16741718351840973, 0.024388670921325684, 0.07599751651287079, 0.0008315717568621039, -0.1553363800048828, 0.11088788509368896, -0.29692429304122925, -0.3403346836566925, -0.0496034175157547, -0.04204685240983963, 0.18656477332115173, 0.06821541488170624, 0.021113121882081032, -0.589342474937439, 0.09298595786094666, -0.27009114623069763 ]	6	While looking up family history I found an old German marriage document which specified a dowry of "1000 Franks." With that, the families in question were from the Suggental/Waldkirch area in what is today the German State of Baden-Württemberg in the northern parts of the "Black Forest." The two possibilities I can think of is that either they used Swiss or French Franks or Francs because they may have moved from either area, or there might have potentially been some sort of Swiss or French influence in the area. The latter, to me, does not seem as possible. Note that for the time period of interest there was no single German state, as we are talking not only long before the German unification of the mid Nineteenth Century but also well before the simplification of German states that occurred during the Napoleonic period. Consequently: Up to that time several dozen independent German States and cities issued their own coinage under their own rulers. Other common possible choices might have been either the Prussian Thaler or the Bavarian Gulden. The marriage contract was likely denominated in the currency that was kept in hand by the bride's father, as in that way currency exchange would be minimized. If the bride's father was selling property in order to raise the dowry amount, he would have negotiated a currency choice matching that of the expected sale, again to minimize currency exchange.	292	ENGLISH	1
Beowulf And Today`s Heroes Heroes today have changed from those of Beowulf’s day. Back in the time of Beowulf heroes were mainly the protectors of the country such as warriors and kings. The roles have changed today were heroes consist of celebrities and sport players. The roles have changed because our society has changed as well. In the time of Beowulf the kings were of the utmost of importance. Without a king the country was sure to fall into ruins. The king’s duty was to protect the country. He did this by keeping up with the wars of the surrounding country and finding warriors to protect the country. The king was highly respected and he had a very important job. Without the king there was no hope for the country. Today really is not all that different, instead of a king we have a president. Our president must still keep up with the foreign affairs including wars in order to protect our country. He must also be able to foresee any affect that foreign affairs might have on the country in the long run. It is out president’s responsibility to ensure that our military divisions, including the airforce, navy, and army, are prepared and able to defend our nation or our nation’s allies. In the epic, Beowulf, heroes were also warriors. These warriors were supposed to protect the country against “monsters” and invasions. The warriors were strong men who could physically make an attack or prevent an attack in order to protect their country. Beowulf was a warrior who was a hero to the country where the Danes lived. Beowulf was able to protect and serve the Danes by killing Grendel. Grendel was an evil monster who had been killing the people that had been sleeping in the hall that he haunted. Beowulf became a hero by not only killing Grendle but also by tearing off his shoulder arm and claw with his bear hands. This is an amazing feat that an ordinary man could not accomplish. To kill a monster with one’s bear hands is simply unheard of! Today our heroes do not normally consist of a warrior as much as a sports player. They too, like the warrior, do things that the ordinary man could not do. Accomplishing unordinary feats is how they earn the respect of the nation. Their job is also equally important as the warrior because they allow people to escape their problems and lives for a while they watch the sport. Mark McGuire is a hero in the sport of baseball team the Cardinals. Mr. McGuire has hit more homeruns than any other man in the major leagues has ever hit in one baseball season. He became a hero by accomplishing such a respectable feat and still being kind to all including his family that he care a lot for. Not only did he keep our interest in the game to see how many homeruns he would get, but he also brought the love back to out national past time. In the year before the country lost respect for baseball when a baseball strike had ruined the season. In bringing back the love for a sacred sport Mr. McGuire earned the counties love and respect. Another great warrior was a man named Wiglaf who tried to save Beowulf’s life. Beowulf ran into trouble when he was fighting an evil dragon. He had gotten older had had not ever fought a fire breathing dragon before. All of Beowulf’s warriors deserted him except for one, Wiglaf. Wiglaf was unable to save Beowulf’s life but he kills the dragon and fulfills Beowulf’s last request. He builds a monument for Beowulf and Wiglaf became king. Today the story is slightly different but equally enjoyable. Sammy Sosa is a baseball player for the Cubs, a rival to the Cardinals (Mark McGuire’s team). Mr. Sosa is a hero because he too beat the previous record for home runs in one baseball season. Although he was battling with Mr. McGuire to make the new home run record the two players kept it friendly and professional only wanting the better man to win. Mr. Sosa also helped to bring enjoyment into the game of baseball. Mr. Sosa also helped to remind us on how important it is to be kind even if the battle is between two heroes who both desire to win the fight. Throughout time the roles that heroes play in our lives have changed but they are still important to our countries. Beowulf and Wiglaf protected their country and people. Just as importantly Mark McGuire and Sammy Sosa brought enjoyment and a break from hectic lives to our country. Even thought the roles have changed for the heroes throughout time their importance to the countries has not gotten smaller. Heroes today are as important as they were in the time of, the hero, Beowulf.	<urn:uuid:217b2b31-e7d1-407c-b6f8-ae94e0ee5212>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://redcowonline.com/beowulf-and-todays-heroes-essay/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00474.warc.gz	en	0.987062	1,006	3.34375	3	[ -0.3923155665397644, 0.5729222297668457, 0.4125683605670929, 0.19547782838344574, -0.47732409834861755, 0.002819440560415387, 0.5655626654624939, 0.14612236618995667, -0.17179623246192932, 0.32426905632019043, 0.03318050503730774, -0.329537957906723, 0.5375623106956482, 0.1546545922756195, -0.11351834982633591, 0.31931909918785095, 0.02699432708323002, 0.108672134578228, -1.225313425064087, 0.25199371576309204, 0.0784529522061348, -0.026108387857675552, 0.11286388337612152, 0.006193067878484726, 0.38485103845596313, 0.17089003324508667, 0.011184753850102425, 0.2457725554704666, -0.2619631290435791, -1.2558587789535522, 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Back in the time of Beowulf heroes were mainly the protectors of the country such as warriors and kings. The roles have changed today were heroes consist of celebrities and sport players. The roles have changed because our society has changed as well. In the time of Beowulf the kings were of the utmost of importance. Without a king the country was sure to fall into ruins. The king’s duty was to protect the country. He did this by keeping up with the wars of the surrounding country and finding warriors to protect the country. The king was highly respected and he had a very important job. Without the king there was no hope for the country. Today really is not all that different, instead of a king we have a president. Our president must still keep up with the foreign affairs including wars in order to protect our country. He must also be able to foresee any affect that foreign affairs might have on the country in the long run. It is out president’s responsibility to ensure that our military divisions, including the airforce, navy, and army, are prepared and able to defend our nation or our nation’s allies. In the epic, Beowulf, heroes were also warriors. These warriors were supposed to protect the country against “monsters” and invasions. The warriors were strong men who could physically make an attack or prevent an attack in order to protect their country. Beowulf was a warrior who was a hero to the country where the Danes lived. Beowulf was able to protect and serve the Danes by killing Grendel. Grendel was an evil monster who had been killing the people that had been sleeping in the hall that he haunted. Beowulf became a hero by not only killing Grendle but also by tearing off his shoulder arm and claw with his bear hands. This is an amazing feat that an ordinary man could not accomplish. To kill a monster with one’s bear hands is simply unheard of! Today our heroes do not normally consist of a warrior as much as a sports player. They too, like the warrior, do things that the ordinary man could not do. Accomplishing unordinary feats is how they earn the respect of the nation. Their job is also equally important as the warrior because they allow people to escape their problems and lives for a while they watch the sport. Mark McGuire is a hero in the sport of baseball team the Cardinals. Mr. McGuire has hit more homeruns than any other man in the major leagues has ever hit in one baseball season. He became a hero by accomplishing such a respectable feat and still being kind to all including his family that he care a lot for. Not only did he keep our interest in the game to see how many homeruns he would get, but he also brought the love back to out national past time. In the year before the country lost respect for baseball when a baseball strike had ruined the season. In bringing back the love for a sacred sport Mr. McGuire earned the counties love and respect. Another great warrior was a man named Wiglaf who tried to save Beowulf’s life. Beowulf ran into trouble when he was fighting an evil dragon. He had gotten older had had not ever fought a fire breathing dragon before. All of Beowulf’s warriors deserted him except for one, Wiglaf. Wiglaf was unable to save Beowulf’s life but he kills the dragon and fulfills Beowulf’s last request. He builds a monument for Beowulf and Wiglaf became king. Today the story is slightly different but equally enjoyable. Sammy Sosa is a baseball player for the Cubs, a rival to the Cardinals (Mark McGuire’s team). Mr. Sosa is a hero because he too beat the previous record for home runs in one baseball season. Although he was battling with Mr. McGuire to make the new home run record the two players kept it friendly and professional only wanting the better man to win. Mr. Sosa also helped to bring enjoyment into the game of baseball. Mr. Sosa also helped to remind us on how important it is to be kind even if the battle is between two heroes who both desire to win the fight. Throughout time the roles that heroes play in our lives have changed but they are still important to our countries. Beowulf and Wiglaf protected their country and people. Just as importantly Mark McGuire and Sammy Sosa brought enjoyment and a break from hectic lives to our country. Even thought the roles have changed for the heroes throughout time their importance to the countries has not gotten smaller. Heroes today are as important as they were in the time of, the hero, Beowulf.	972	ENGLISH	1
Although Freud was born in Freiber g, Moravia, in 1856 (now part of the Czech Republic), his family moved to Vienna when he was 4 years old, and he spent virtually the remainder of his life there. Freud excelled in school and obtained his medical degree from the University of Vienna. Although he started out as a researcher in neurology, he realized that he could make more money to support his wife and growing family if he entered into private medical practice. After studying hypnosis with Jean-Martin Charcot in Paris, Freud returned to Vienna and started a private practice, treating patients with "nervous disorders." During that time, Freud began developing the idea that portions of the human mind were outside conscious awareness. The unconscious is the part of the mind about which the conscious mind has no awareness. Freud sought to study empirically the implications of the unconscious for understanding people' s lives and their problems with living. From his early contact with patients, Freud began to surmise that the unconscious mind operated under its own power, subject to its own motivations and according to its own logic. Freud devoted the rest of his career to exploring the nature and logic of the unconscious mind. Freud's first solo-authored book, The Interpr etation of Dr eams, was published in 1900. In it, he described how the unconscious mind was expressed in dreams, and how dreams contained clues to our innermost secrets, desires, and motives. The analysis of dreams became a cornerstone of his treatment. This book sold poorly at first but nev ertheless attracted the attention of other medical doctors seeking to understand psychological problems. By 1902, there was a small group of followers (e.g., Alfred Adler) who met with Freud every Wednesday evening. At these meetings, Freud talked about his theory , shared insights, and discussed patients' progress, all the while smoking one of the 20 or so cigars he smoked each day . During this period, Freud was systematically building his theory and testing its acceptance by knowledgeable peers. By 1908, the membership of the Wednesday Psychological Circle had grown significantl , prompting Freud to form the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society (Grosskurth, 1991). In 1909, Freud made his only visit to the United States, to present a series of lectures on psychoanalysis at the invitation of psychologist G. Stanley Hall, who was then president of Clark University . Rosenzweig (1994) describes Freud' s trip to the United States in fascinating detail. In 1910, the International Psychoanalytic Association was formed. Freud' s theories were gaining recognition around the world. Freud and his work drew both praise and criticism. Whereas some accepted his ideas as brilliant insights into the workings of human nature, others opposed his views on various scientific and ideological grounds. To some, his treatment approach (the so-called talking cure) was absurd. Freud's theory that the adult personality was a result of how the person as a child coped with his or her sexual and aggressive urges was considered politically incorrect by the standards of Victorian morality. Even some of the founding members of his Vienna Psychoanalytic Society grew to disagree with developments in his theory . Nevertheless, Freud continued to refine and apply his theor , writing 20 books and numerous papers during his career. Germany invaded Austria in 1938, and the Nazis began their persecution of the Jews there. Freud, who was Jewish, had reasons to fear the Nazis. The Nazi party burned his books and the books of other modern intellectuals. With the assistance of wealthy patrons, Freud, his wife, and their six children fled to London. Freud die the following year after a long, painful, and disfiguring battle with cancer of the ja and throat. Freud's London house continued to be occupied by his daughter , Anna Freud, herself a prominent psychoanalyst, until her death in 1982. The house is now part of the Freud Museum in London. Visitors can walk through Freud' s library and study , which remain largely as he left them when he died. The study, which is where Freud treated his patients, still contains his celebrated couch, covered with an Oriental rug. It also contains the many ancient artifacts and small statues and icons that seemed to fascinate him and reveal his secret passion for archeology . Freud has been referred to as the original archeologist of the human mind. Was this article helpful? Hypnosis is a capital instrument for relaxation and alleviating stress. It helps calm down both the brain and body, giving a useful rest. All the same it can be rather costly to hire a clinical hypnotherapist, and we might not always want one around when we would like to destress.	<urn:uuid:5b31d250-6c08-47bf-8e37-44a2d24af233>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.doctorabel.us/personality-psychology/sigmund-freud-a-brief-biography.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00062.warc.gz	en	0.981738	957	3.265625	3	[ 0.07674553990364075, 0.6204921007156372, 0.1519937962293625, 0.21652556955814362, -0.23086044192314148, 0.5279462337493896, 0.5355243682861328, 0.12570568919181824, 0.30609986186027527, -0.3932533264160156, 0.07185979187488556, -0.32694387435913086, -0.2167074978351593, 0.2589994966983795, 0.015153302811086178, 0.17896267771720886, -0.5848503112792969, -0.07700885832309723, -0.43788930773735046, -0.015653302893042564, 0.4869351387023926, -0.6976785659790039, 0.2432112842798233, 0.06221853941679001, -0.24837233126163483, -0.19527064263820648, 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Freud excelled in school and obtained his medical degree from the University of Vienna. Although he started out as a researcher in neurology, he realized that he could make more money to support his wife and growing family if he entered into private medical practice. After studying hypnosis with Jean-Martin Charcot in Paris, Freud returned to Vienna and started a private practice, treating patients with "nervous disorders." During that time, Freud began developing the idea that portions of the human mind were outside conscious awareness. The unconscious is the part of the mind about which the conscious mind has no awareness. Freud sought to study empirically the implications of the unconscious for understanding people' s lives and their problems with living. From his early contact with patients, Freud began to surmise that the unconscious mind operated under its own power, subject to its own motivations and according to its own logic. Freud devoted the rest of his career to exploring the nature and logic of the unconscious mind. Freud's first solo-authored book, The Interpr etation of Dr eams, was published in 1900. In it, he described how the unconscious mind was expressed in dreams, and how dreams contained clues to our innermost secrets, desires, and motives. The analysis of dreams became a cornerstone of his treatment. This book sold poorly at first but nev ertheless attracted the attention of other medical doctors seeking to understand psychological problems. By 1902, there was a small group of followers (e.g., Alfred Adler) who met with Freud every Wednesday evening. At these meetings, Freud talked about his theory , shared insights, and discussed patients' progress, all the while smoking one of the 20 or so cigars he smoked each day . During this period, Freud was systematically building his theory and testing its acceptance by knowledgeable peers. By 1908, the membership of the Wednesday Psychological Circle had grown significantl , prompting Freud to form the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society (Grosskurth, 1991). In 1909, Freud made his only visit to the United States, to present a series of lectures on psychoanalysis at the invitation of psychologist G. Stanley Hall, who was then president of Clark University . Rosenzweig (1994) describes Freud' s trip to the United States in fascinating detail. In 1910, the International Psychoanalytic Association was formed. Freud' s theories were gaining recognition around the world. Freud and his work drew both praise and criticism. Whereas some accepted his ideas as brilliant insights into the workings of human nature, others opposed his views on various scientific and ideological grounds. To some, his treatment approach (the so-called talking cure) was absurd. Freud's theory that the adult personality was a result of how the person as a child coped with his or her sexual and aggressive urges was considered politically incorrect by the standards of Victorian morality. Even some of the founding members of his Vienna Psychoanalytic Society grew to disagree with developments in his theory . Nevertheless, Freud continued to refine and apply his theor , writing 20 books and numerous papers during his career. Germany invaded Austria in 1938, and the Nazis began their persecution of the Jews there. Freud, who was Jewish, had reasons to fear the Nazis. The Nazi party burned his books and the books of other modern intellectuals. With the assistance of wealthy patrons, Freud, his wife, and their six children fled to London. Freud die the following year after a long, painful, and disfiguring battle with cancer of the ja and throat. Freud's London house continued to be occupied by his daughter , Anna Freud, herself a prominent psychoanalyst, until her death in 1982. The house is now part of the Freud Museum in London. Visitors can walk through Freud' s library and study , which remain largely as he left them when he died. The study, which is where Freud treated his patients, still contains his celebrated couch, covered with an Oriental rug. It also contains the many ancient artifacts and small statues and icons that seemed to fascinate him and reveal his secret passion for archeology . Freud has been referred to as the original archeologist of the human mind. Was this article helpful? Hypnosis is a capital instrument for relaxation and alleviating stress. It helps calm down both the brain and body, giving a useful rest. All the same it can be rather costly to hire a clinical hypnotherapist, and we might not always want one around when we would like to destress.	985	ENGLISH	1
Post offices offer several mail-related services including the dispatching of letters and parcels, the hiring out of post office boxes, and the selling of postage stamps. They also offer additional services such as processing of government services and payments such as taxes and licenses. Post offices also offer banking services such as saving accounts and money order. The term “post office” was first used in the 17th century after the legalization of the private mail services in England. The general post office is used to refer to the national headquarter of a postal service. Evolution Of The Post Office Postal services date back to as early as 2,400 BC when the Egyptian Pharaohs disseminated the decrees using the royal curriers. Regular mail services were initiated by Princely House of Thurn and Taxi in Brussels in the late 16th century. The history of the first post office in the world is not clear, but the several post houses were in place by late 17th century. However, the oldest functioning post office as claimed by the British Postal Museum is located on the High Street in Sanquhar, Scotland. The post office was established in 1712, five years after the unification of Scotland and England. Sanquhar is a town in Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland. The town lies north of Thornhill and west of Moffat. The town is known for several reasons including a place where the Sanquhar Declaration was signed by the Covenanters who opposed the episcopalization renouncing their allegiance to the king. Overview Of The Sanquhar Post Office Sanquhar post office opened its door in 1712 in Dumfries along the High Street. It is recognized by the Guinness Book of Records as the oldest post office in the world. When the post office was opened, the postmen, who were called “runners,” ran between officers to deliver letters and parcels. Sanquhar post office has operated continuously since its establishment, eight years longer than its closest rival in Sweden. In 1738, the post office began stamping mails and later introduced horses which were used to deliver letters and parcels. The post office had no counters when it began its operations. The mails were delivered through the window with customers tapping the window then handing in their mails and the required fee. The position of a postmaster was prestigious and was always held by men in other authoritative positions in the community such as provosts, schoolmasters, and town clerks. The post office was modernized in 1974 with the replacement of the hand stamping by the hand-operated canceling machine called bacon slicer. The history of the Sanquhar post office has been shaped by the family of Matthew Hogarth who ran the business for 70 years and is still a dedicated regular. Future Plans For The Sanquhar Post Office The Sanquhar post office was put for sale in 2014 due to the persistent losses and the uncertainty of the business. The post office was almost closed down when it was apparent that a buyer could not be found with a possible community takeover falling through. However, the world’s oldest post office reopened its doors in 2015 under a new postmaster, Manzoor Alam, after its renovation and refurbishment. Part of the postmaster’s plan is to open a postal museum at the postal office. If a postal museum is opened, then it will be the first in Scotland Where is the World's Oldest Post Office? The Sanquhar Post Office in the United Kingdom has been recorded as the oldest working post office in the world by the Guinness World Records. About the Author John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports. 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They also offer additional services such as processing of government services and payments such as taxes and licenses. Post offices also offer banking services such as saving accounts and money order. The term “post office” was first used in the 17th century after the legalization of the private mail services in England. The general post office is used to refer to the national headquarter of a postal service. Evolution Of The Post Office Postal services date back to as early as 2,400 BC when the Egyptian Pharaohs disseminated the decrees using the royal curriers. Regular mail services were initiated by Princely House of Thurn and Taxi in Brussels in the late 16th century. The history of the first post office in the world is not clear, but the several post houses were in place by late 17th century. However, the oldest functioning post office as claimed by the British Postal Museum is located on the High Street in Sanquhar, Scotland. The post office was established in 1712, five years after the unification of Scotland and England. Sanquhar is a town in Dumfries and Galloway, Scotland. The town lies north of Thornhill and west of Moffat. The town is known for several reasons including a place where the Sanquhar Declaration was signed by the Covenanters who opposed the episcopalization renouncing their allegiance to the king. Overview Of The Sanquhar Post Office Sanquhar post office opened its door in 1712 in Dumfries along the High Street. It is recognized by the Guinness Book of Records as the oldest post office in the world. When the post office was opened, the postmen, who were called “runners,” ran between officers to deliver letters and parcels. Sanquhar post office has operated continuously since its establishment, eight years longer than its closest rival in Sweden. In 1738, the post office began stamping mails and later introduced horses which were used to deliver letters and parcels. The post office had no counters when it began its operations. The mails were delivered through the window with customers tapping the window then handing in their mails and the required fee. The position of a postmaster was prestigious and was always held by men in other authoritative positions in the community such as provosts, schoolmasters, and town clerks. The post office was modernized in 1974 with the replacement of the hand stamping by the hand-operated canceling machine called bacon slicer. The history of the Sanquhar post office has been shaped by the family of Matthew Hogarth who ran the business for 70 years and is still a dedicated regular. Future Plans For The Sanquhar Post Office The Sanquhar post office was put for sale in 2014 due to the persistent losses and the uncertainty of the business. The post office was almost closed down when it was apparent that a buyer could not be found with a possible community takeover falling through. However, the world’s oldest post office reopened its doors in 2015 under a new postmaster, Manzoor Alam, after its renovation and refurbishment. Part of the postmaster’s plan is to open a postal museum at the postal office. If a postal museum is opened, then it will be the first in Scotland Where is the World's Oldest Post Office? The Sanquhar Post Office in the United Kingdom has been recorded as the oldest working post office in the world by the Guinness World Records. About the Author John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	819	ENGLISH	1
Benedict Arnold, the American general during the Revolutionary War who betrayed his country and became synonymous with the word “traitor,” was born on January 14, 1741. Arnold, who was raised in a respected family in Norwich, Connecticut, apprenticed with an apothecary and was a member of the militia during the French and Indian War (1754-1763). He later became a successful trader and joined the Continental Army when the Revolutionary War broke out between Great Britain and its 13 American colonies in 1775. During the war, Arnold proved himself to be a brave, skilled leader, helping Ethan Allen’s troops capture Fort Ticonderoga in 1775 and then taking part in the unsuccessful attack on British Quebec later that year, which earned him a promotion to brigadier general. Arnold distinguished himself in campaigns at Lake Champlain, Ridgefield and Saratoga, and gained the support of George Washington. However, Arnold had enemies within the military and in 1777, a group of lower-ranking men were promoted ahead of him. Over the next several years, Arnold married a second time and he and his wife led a lavish lifestyle in Philadelphia, racking up substantial debt. Money problems and the resentment Arnold felt over not being promoted faster were factors in his decision to become a turncoat. In 1780, Arnold was given command of West Point, the American fort on the Hudson River in New York (and future home of the United States Military Academy, established in 1802). Arnold contacted Sir Henry Clinton, head of the British forces, and proposed handing over West Point and its men. On September 21 of that year, Arnold met with British Major John Andre and made his traitorous pact, in which the American was to receive a large sum of money and a high position in the British army. However, the conspiracy was uncovered and Andre was captured and killed. Arnold fled to the enemy side and went on to lead British troops in Virginia and Connecticut. He later moved to England, though he never received all of what he’d been promised by the British. The former American hero and patriot died in London, in relative obscurity, on June 14, 1801. 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-0.39793330430984497, 0.24754777550697327, 0.19048704206943512, -0.18059314787387848, 0.7012362480163574, 0.30876463651657104, 0.18946437537670135, -0.15720276534557343, 0.23078669607639313, 0.12489080429077148, -0.03525347635149956, 0.3621222674846649, -0.062072914093732834, 0.30654004216194153, 0.06772639602422714, -0.20860551297664642, -0.5516695976257324, 0.05654752627015114, 0.3772589862346649, 0.3842208683490753, 0.04388041794300079, -0.09717331826686859, -0.041086096316576004, 0.142268568277359, -0.21991965174674988 ]	18	Benedict Arnold, the American general during the Revolutionary War who betrayed his country and became synonymous with the word “traitor,” was born on January 14, 1741. Arnold, who was raised in a respected family in Norwich, Connecticut, apprenticed with an apothecary and was a member of the militia during the French and Indian War (1754-1763). He later became a successful trader and joined the Continental Army when the Revolutionary War broke out between Great Britain and its 13 American colonies in 1775. During the war, Arnold proved himself to be a brave, skilled leader, helping Ethan Allen’s troops capture Fort Ticonderoga in 1775 and then taking part in the unsuccessful attack on British Quebec later that year, which earned him a promotion to brigadier general. Arnold distinguished himself in campaigns at Lake Champlain, Ridgefield and Saratoga, and gained the support of George Washington. However, Arnold had enemies within the military and in 1777, a group of lower-ranking men were promoted ahead of him. Over the next several years, Arnold married a second time and he and his wife led a lavish lifestyle in Philadelphia, racking up substantial debt. Money problems and the resentment Arnold felt over not being promoted faster were factors in his decision to become a turncoat. In 1780, Arnold was given command of West Point, the American fort on the Hudson River in New York (and future home of the United States Military Academy, established in 1802). Arnold contacted Sir Henry Clinton, head of the British forces, and proposed handing over West Point and its men. On September 21 of that year, Arnold met with British Major John Andre and made his traitorous pact, in which the American was to receive a large sum of money and a high position in the British army. However, the conspiracy was uncovered and Andre was captured and killed. Arnold fled to the enemy side and went on to lead British troops in Virginia and Connecticut. He later moved to England, though he never received all of what he’d been promised by the British. The former American hero and patriot died in London, in relative obscurity, on June 14, 1801. READ MORE: Why Did Benedict Arnold Betray America?	483	ENGLISH	1
Education Corner 29 - Category: Education Corner - Published: Monday, 02 January 2017 17:33 - Written by Richard Womack, Ed.D - Hits: 4057 Our beginning teacher Navarro Navarro began teaching just at the end of Trust Territory Times and found there was really no Micronesian History textbook for his 5th graders. His class had only U S history texts. We saw that Navarro told his 5th graders to cross out “Columbus discovers America” and replace it in ink with “One of the first Europeans to come to the New World”. Because writing in ink in textbooks was against the school rules our critical thinking questions centered around—should Navarro have done this? Most case study readers agree that saying Columbus was the discoverer of the “Americas” is really not too appropriate. We noted that we would never say something like Magellan discovered Guam. So when students or teachers say No--Navarro should not have had students change the text in ink---there is always a No... But! A Yes or No that must be explained is the critical thinking part of the case study. In this instance usually education students want the change but somehow they feel Navarro should have gone to the Mt. St. Mary’s Principal and received permission. We ended last E C saying that Navarro was pretty good with what he was to teach (the curriculum) but was now concerned with how to make the subjects interesting (methods and strategies). Continuing the Navarro Case Study Mr. Davis, an American, and Navarro’s 6th grade science teacher, always made science interesting with his curiosity blanket. Mr. Davis always had something hidden beneath an old green blanket before science class. When students paid attention to the lesson it was possible to guess the hidden object. He recalled a hidden kitten when the lesson was mammals and a long snake-lizard for the reptile lesson. Once for the health lesson on junk food he had hidden two packages of cookies. When the students guessed correctly the whole class ate the cookies. He recalled Mr. Davis’s favorite expression about moderation. “Nothing wrong with cookies—in moderation,” Mr. Davis had said. Besides his curiosity blanket, Mr. Davis made things interesting with experiments. Sixthgraders were always doing experiments ... proving things right and proving things wrong. He remembered too that every 6th grader had to enter the school science fair. His own project “Monsters” had won a blue ribbon (1st prize) at the school fair and a red ribbon at the county fair. Mr. Davis had shown Navarro about planarian worms. Students could barely make out these little creatures with the naked eye. But under a microscope you could split the head and grow two heads and split the two heads and grow four. You could do the same with the tails. Navarro remembered his favorite monster worm. It had four heads and four tails. Mr. Davis had made him add the word regeneration to his project title so it read “Monsters—Experimenting with Regeneration.” The entire 6th grade thought it was the coolest of the cool and everyone thought it deserved a first or blue ribbon at the county science fair. Navarro had always thought that the first prize had been wasted on some plants that grew at different rates using different fertilizers. It was titled “Plants— Growth Rate Using Different Fertilizers.” The science fair was always about the scientific method and the Blue Ribbon Girl had her dependent and independent variables and variables must have impressed the judges. But even 10 years later the young teacher still believed his monsters were better than plants growing in chicken or cow waste. And there again he had received a red ribbon and perhaps was another reason why he associated the color red with something bad. And even though he did not get the first prize, Navarro knew he would show his students planarian worms before he fooled around with plant growing. He had to do both plants and animals in 5th grade science so perhaps he would have his 5th graders do both experiments. And while he did not know if there was still a county science fair, he would organize a Mt. St. Mary’s science fair and be sure all of his 5th (and also 8th) graders entered. He would make this part of the science grade although he was not sure about grades and grading. Navarro worried a little on this. “How does one grade a science experiment?” he thought to himself? Navarro thought about holidays and then once again about Micronesian History. His American teachers always had special lessons and often with treats on days like Thanksgiving, George Washington’s and Abraham Lincoln’s birthdays. Students dressed up and did things like plays about the holiday. These were American holidays and perhaps would no longer be celebrated. He smiled as he thought about the 4th of July. Independence Day will have to be celebrated on a different day once independence came. Navarro was sure that Liberation Day would remain. After all, that was truly a Micronesian event although the day varied from island to island depending on when the Japanese actually gave up by disarming and leaving each particular island in September of 1945. But whatever holidays that came up Navarro would do a good lesson. After all, if the date was important enough for a day off, the day deserved a special lesson and he could have some treats even if he had to buy the treats himself. Finally what Navarro realized was the idea of student involvement or students being part of the lessons. As a student Navarro liked lessons where he was doing something—hands on. He saw that discovering why something occurred or why something was true was important. Questions as why it rains so much in Kolonia was important. That was far more useful learning than a student knowing the average rainfall in Kolonia was about 180 inches per year. He knew that observing cells in a microscope and learning how and why cells work was both important and interesting. This was far more important than memorizing the definition of a cell—the cell is the smallest whole part of a living thing. It was not too difficult for Navarro to memorize a definition or pick out the correct answer on a multiple choice test. For many of his classmates it was difficult and they received low grades in science and history. It was difficult and boring and many just said—“I am just not good at science” or “I am just not good at history” and finally “I don’t like science and history because they are so boring. Our critical thinking questions begin with: Do you think students learn better when they are actively involved in activities as science fairs? And of course- Why? More on this in the next E C. 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0.05649983137845993, 0.08193649351596832, 0.05200950801372528, -0.14009270071983337, 0.2109740674495697, -0.8280249834060669, -0.2575659155845642, 0.6677080392837524, 0.05487196892499924, -0.17317529022693634, -0.14799733459949493, 0.18765412271022797, -0.35598963499069214, 0.2024046778678894, -0.17678365111351013, 0.0455799326300621, -0.04849439486861229, -0.6138970255851746, 0.733081579208374, -0.7421566247940063, -0.22855165600776672, -0.3320390284061432, -0.23290306329727173, -0.07506408542394638, -0.5444803237915039, 0.49186545610427856, 0.5303730368614197, 0.29905885457992554 ]	1	Education Corner 29 - Category: Education Corner - Published: Monday, 02 January 2017 17:33 - Written by Richard Womack, Ed.D - Hits: 4057 Our beginning teacher Navarro Navarro began teaching just at the end of Trust Territory Times and found there was really no Micronesian History textbook for his 5th graders. His class had only U S history texts. We saw that Navarro told his 5th graders to cross out “Columbus discovers America” and replace it in ink with “One of the first Europeans to come to the New World”. Because writing in ink in textbooks was against the school rules our critical thinking questions centered around—should Navarro have done this? Most case study readers agree that saying Columbus was the discoverer of the “Americas” is really not too appropriate. We noted that we would never say something like Magellan discovered Guam. So when students or teachers say No--Navarro should not have had students change the text in ink---there is always a No... But! A Yes or No that must be explained is the critical thinking part of the case study. In this instance usually education students want the change but somehow they feel Navarro should have gone to the Mt. St. Mary’s Principal and received permission. We ended last E C saying that Navarro was pretty good with what he was to teach (the curriculum) but was now concerned with how to make the subjects interesting (methods and strategies). Continuing the Navarro Case Study Mr. Davis, an American, and Navarro’s 6th grade science teacher, always made science interesting with his curiosity blanket. Mr. Davis always had something hidden beneath an old green blanket before science class. When students paid attention to the lesson it was possible to guess the hidden object. He recalled a hidden kitten when the lesson was mammals and a long snake-lizard for the reptile lesson. Once for the health lesson on junk food he had hidden two packages of cookies. When the students guessed correctly the whole class ate the cookies. He recalled Mr. Davis’s favorite expression about moderation. “Nothing wrong with cookies—in moderation,” Mr. Davis had said. Besides his curiosity blanket, Mr. Davis made things interesting with experiments. Sixthgraders were always doing experiments ... proving things right and proving things wrong. He remembered too that every 6th grader had to enter the school science fair. His own project “Monsters” had won a blue ribbon (1st prize) at the school fair and a red ribbon at the county fair. Mr. Davis had shown Navarro about planarian worms. Students could barely make out these little creatures with the naked eye. But under a microscope you could split the head and grow two heads and split the two heads and grow four. You could do the same with the tails. Navarro remembered his favorite monster worm. It had four heads and four tails. Mr. Davis had made him add the word regeneration to his project title so it read “Monsters—Experimenting with Regeneration.” The entire 6th grade thought it was the coolest of the cool and everyone thought it deserved a first or blue ribbon at the county science fair. Navarro had always thought that the first prize had been wasted on some plants that grew at different rates using different fertilizers. It was titled “Plants— Growth Rate Using Different Fertilizers.” The science fair was always about the scientific method and the Blue Ribbon Girl had her dependent and independent variables and variables must have impressed the judges. But even 10 years later the young teacher still believed his monsters were better than plants growing in chicken or cow waste. And there again he had received a red ribbon and perhaps was another reason why he associated the color red with something bad. And even though he did not get the first prize, Navarro knew he would show his students planarian worms before he fooled around with plant growing. He had to do both plants and animals in 5th grade science so perhaps he would have his 5th graders do both experiments. And while he did not know if there was still a county science fair, he would organize a Mt. St. Mary’s science fair and be sure all of his 5th (and also 8th) graders entered. He would make this part of the science grade although he was not sure about grades and grading. Navarro worried a little on this. “How does one grade a science experiment?” he thought to himself? Navarro thought about holidays and then once again about Micronesian History. His American teachers always had special lessons and often with treats on days like Thanksgiving, George Washington’s and Abraham Lincoln’s birthdays. Students dressed up and did things like plays about the holiday. These were American holidays and perhaps would no longer be celebrated. He smiled as he thought about the 4th of July. Independence Day will have to be celebrated on a different day once independence came. Navarro was sure that Liberation Day would remain. After all, that was truly a Micronesian event although the day varied from island to island depending on when the Japanese actually gave up by disarming and leaving each particular island in September of 1945. But whatever holidays that came up Navarro would do a good lesson. After all, if the date was important enough for a day off, the day deserved a special lesson and he could have some treats even if he had to buy the treats himself. Finally what Navarro realized was the idea of student involvement or students being part of the lessons. As a student Navarro liked lessons where he was doing something—hands on. He saw that discovering why something occurred or why something was true was important. Questions as why it rains so much in Kolonia was important. That was far more useful learning than a student knowing the average rainfall in Kolonia was about 180 inches per year. He knew that observing cells in a microscope and learning how and why cells work was both important and interesting. This was far more important than memorizing the definition of a cell—the cell is the smallest whole part of a living thing. It was not too difficult for Navarro to memorize a definition or pick out the correct answer on a multiple choice test. For many of his classmates it was difficult and they received low grades in science and history. It was difficult and boring and many just said—“I am just not good at science” or “I am just not good at history” and finally “I don’t like science and history because they are so boring. Our critical thinking questions begin with: Do you think students learn better when they are actively involved in activities as science fairs? And of course- Why? More on this in the next E C. Best wishes for a Happy Holiday season to all-womackandassociates765@gmail. com	1,409	ENGLISH	1
The Jewish community of Sudan is not documented before 1885, however circumstantial evidence suggests that Jews may have been living in the country for at least a century before this. In 1885, Sudan rebelled against Ottoman rule and its new leadership forced conversion on all non-Muslim citizens. It was not until the Anglo-Egyptian invasion of Sudan thirteen years later that those who had converted were allowed to revert to their original religions. Some Jews chose to do this, whilst others opted to continue to practice Islam. From 1898 Cairo was connected to Khartoum by railroad and a new route was opened to traders. Jews from all over the Middle East and North Africa began to arrive in Sudan via Cairo and settle along the Nile in the towns of Khartoum, Omdurman and Wad-Medani. By 1926 a permanent synagogue had been built in Khartoum and the community had established itself financially. Despite this, the community never reached more than 1000 people and remained under the auspices of the Egyptian Beth-Din (Jewish law court). Jews were allowed to live peacefully and suffered very little antisemitism. However, following the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, anti-Zionist sentiment in Sudan began to grow and the media grew increasingly hostile. In 1956 Sudan gained independence from the British Empire, and after Israel's involvement in the Suez Crisis later that year Jewish businesses were falsely accused of poisoning Sudanese schools and hospitals. At this time approximately half the community decided to leave Sudan, although the community was supplemented by several Jewish families escaping Egypt. In 1964, following months of protests, the Sudanese military government gave way to a civilian parliament. The new government was closely allied to Nasser in Egypt and it was increasingly difficult for Jews to gain exit visas and leave the country. In 1967 the Arab League convened in Khartoum and the Six-Day War broke out. Antisemitic attacks appeared in Sudanese newspapers advocating the murder and torture of prominent members of the Jewish community. In addition to this, all the young Jewish men in Khartoum were imprisoned and interrogated for days at a time, accused of being Zionist spies. Almost all the remaining Jews left Sudan. 1973 the few Jewish business owners remaining in Sudan left the country after communism was established and all businesses were nationalised. There are no Jews remaining in Sudan.	<urn:uuid:c47abe46-3787-4c0b-a0c0-1ce9dd86a49e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sephardivoices.org.uk/Countries/Sudan	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00539.warc.gz	en	0.9803	486	3.765625	4	[ -0.18012893199920654, 0.2551952302455902, -0.03188939020037651, 0.3047773540019989, 0.26545608043670654, 0.24913160502910614, -0.16069568693637848, 0.048695653676986694, -0.3401132822036743, 0.2983798086643219, 0.2022097110748291, -0.15022540092468262, -0.022634457796812057, -0.058212943375110626, -0.24646428227424622, 0.14737391471862793, -0.6543358564376831, 0.1365765780210495, -0.8427349328994751, 0.002511239144951105, -0.43891608715057373, -0.3634106516838074, 0.5774241089820862, -0.1524534374475479, 0.47373834252357483, 0.3282793462276459, -0.032462991774082184, -0.509716272354126, -0.35057857632637024, -1.4100762605667114, 0.06218152865767479, -0.06681817024946213, 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In 1885, Sudan rebelled against Ottoman rule and its new leadership forced conversion on all non-Muslim citizens. It was not until the Anglo-Egyptian invasion of Sudan thirteen years later that those who had converted were allowed to revert to their original religions. Some Jews chose to do this, whilst others opted to continue to practice Islam. From 1898 Cairo was connected to Khartoum by railroad and a new route was opened to traders. Jews from all over the Middle East and North Africa began to arrive in Sudan via Cairo and settle along the Nile in the towns of Khartoum, Omdurman and Wad-Medani. By 1926 a permanent synagogue had been built in Khartoum and the community had established itself financially. Despite this, the community never reached more than 1000 people and remained under the auspices of the Egyptian Beth-Din (Jewish law court). Jews were allowed to live peacefully and suffered very little antisemitism. However, following the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, anti-Zionist sentiment in Sudan began to grow and the media grew increasingly hostile. In 1956 Sudan gained independence from the British Empire, and after Israel's involvement in the Suez Crisis later that year Jewish businesses were falsely accused of poisoning Sudanese schools and hospitals. At this time approximately half the community decided to leave Sudan, although the community was supplemented by several Jewish families escaping Egypt. In 1964, following months of protests, the Sudanese military government gave way to a civilian parliament. The new government was closely allied to Nasser in Egypt and it was increasingly difficult for Jews to gain exit visas and leave the country. In 1967 the Arab League convened in Khartoum and the Six-Day War broke out. Antisemitic attacks appeared in Sudanese newspapers advocating the murder and torture of prominent members of the Jewish community. In addition to this, all the young Jewish men in Khartoum were imprisoned and interrogated for days at a time, accused of being Zionist spies. Almost all the remaining Jews left Sudan. 1973 the few Jewish business owners remaining in Sudan left the country after communism was established and all businesses were nationalised. There are no Jews remaining in Sudan.	516	ENGLISH	1
A list of rectors and vicars, dating from the 12th century, is exhibited in the church, but there are doubts about its accuracy as there are mistakes in the 19th century and additional names in the 13th century have come to light. The list shows a change in the status of the priest during the 14th century, the rector becomes a vicar. How this came about is not clear, but it is said that in the 12th century the advowson was granted to the convent of St. Mary at Rowcester and then in 1230, the convent was also granted sixty shillings per annum, out of the rectorial tithes. Just over one hundred years later, comes the change in the status of the priest, he becomes a vicar in 1339 and, it is assumed, the rectorial tithes were taken over in their entirety, by the convent. How, or why, this was done is not known, but it was a very serious loss to the income of the parish priest and an explanation of the difference between a rector and a vicar, will show why. A rector, by virtue of his office was entitled to both great and small tithes arising in his parish, but the vicar was only entitled to the small tithes, of much less value. The great tithes embraced everything that grew on the land, so the rector took every tenth sheaf of corn, a tenth of all hay, a tenth of all trees that were felled and when root crops came to be grown, every tenth load of turnips or whatever they were, would be his. The small tithes were derived from that which fed on the produce of the soil, the wool from sheep, the milk from cows, the eggs from hens, every tenth calf or foal or piglet, or the value thereof, would also go to the rector. In those parishes where there was a vicar, the great tithes were collected by what was termed, the impropriate rector, a lay person, leaving only the small tithes, of much less value for the vicar. The rector had to collect his tithes, but the vicar could claim to have his delivered to the parish church porch and perhaps that is the reason, gates were once hung at the entrance to the porch, the staples can still be seen.	<urn:uuid:161c8b9e-c9e5-4247-ac85-1d4216808dc2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://woodfordhalsearchive.org/buildings/st-marys/st-marys-001.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00170.warc.gz	en	0.991813	492	3.4375	3	[ 0.11016163229942322, -0.005810927599668503, 0.17851538956165314, -0.062413159757852554, 0.4874085783958435, -0.27508485317230225, -0.4450184106826782, 0.06832601875066757, 0.26097023487091064, 0.05487312749028206, 0.017394741997122765, -0.39194145798683167, 0.03513270616531372, 0.40974095463752747, 0.038699448108673096, -0.11427189409732819, -0.619755744934082, 0.5735940337181091, -0.4180842638015747, 0.061774976551532745, 0.8640026450157166, 0.1373085379600525, 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The list shows a change in the status of the priest during the 14th century, the rector becomes a vicar. How this came about is not clear, but it is said that in the 12th century the advowson was granted to the convent of St. Mary at Rowcester and then in 1230, the convent was also granted sixty shillings per annum, out of the rectorial tithes. Just over one hundred years later, comes the change in the status of the priest, he becomes a vicar in 1339 and, it is assumed, the rectorial tithes were taken over in their entirety, by the convent. How, or why, this was done is not known, but it was a very serious loss to the income of the parish priest and an explanation of the difference between a rector and a vicar, will show why. A rector, by virtue of his office was entitled to both great and small tithes arising in his parish, but the vicar was only entitled to the small tithes, of much less value. The great tithes embraced everything that grew on the land, so the rector took every tenth sheaf of corn, a tenth of all hay, a tenth of all trees that were felled and when root crops came to be grown, every tenth load of turnips or whatever they were, would be his. The small tithes were derived from that which fed on the produce of the soil, the wool from sheep, the milk from cows, the eggs from hens, every tenth calf or foal or piglet, or the value thereof, would also go to the rector. In those parishes where there was a vicar, the great tithes were collected by what was termed, the impropriate rector, a lay person, leaving only the small tithes, of much less value for the vicar. The rector had to collect his tithes, but the vicar could claim to have his delivered to the parish church porch and perhaps that is the reason, gates were once hung at the entrance to the porch, the staples can still be seen.	515	ENGLISH	1
“A lion is stronger than a man, but it does not enable him to dominate the human race. You have neglected the duty you owe to yourselves and you have lost your natural rights by shutting your eyes to your own interests….” — Begum Rokeya, Sultana’s Dream (1908) New York, 1906 Clara Lemlich, a young Jewish woman, joined a group of shirtwaist makers. They wanted to form a union, but didn’t know how. Six young women, six young men and Clara formed Local 25. In those days, the ILGWU (International Ladies Garment Workers Union) was small. Most of its members were male cloakmakers. Although Clara was determined to be a “good girl,” two days later she was talking union. The oppressive conditions at work made her angry. The forewoman would follow the girls to the toilet. She would needle them to hurry. New girls would be cheated, their pay was always less than agreed upon. The girls would be fined for all sorts of things. They were charged for electricity, needles, and thread. “Mistakes” would be made in pay envelopes, they were difficult to get fixed. The clock was fixed so that lunch hour was twenty minutes short. Or, it would be set back an hour. Not knowing, they would work the extra hour. Unpaid (Meredith Tax, “The Uprising of the Thirty Thousand”). Clara took part in her first strike in 1907. At one of the union meetings, strikers argued about “pure-and-simple-trade-unionism.” Clara asked one of them what that meant. They went for a walk. Her first lesson in Marxism took place during that forty block long walk. “He started with a bottle of milk?how it was made, who made the money from it at every stage of its production. Not only did the boss take the profits, he said, but not a drop of milk did you drink unless he allowed you to. It was funny, you know, because I’d been saying things like that to the girls before. But now I understood it better and I began to use it more often?only with shirtwaists.” (Paula Scheier, “Clara Lemlich Shavelson”). In 1908, the first Women’s Day was initiated by socialist women in the United States. Large demonstrations were held. In 1909, a Women’s Day rally was held in Manhattan. It was attended by two thousand people. The same year, women garment workers staged a general strike. Known as the Uprising of the Thirty Thousand (or Twenty Thousand, depending on the source), the shirtwaist makers struck for thirteen weeks. The weeks were cold and wintry. They demanded better pay, better working conditions. Things are better now, says Moshrefa Mishu, president of the Garments Sromik Oikko Forum (Shomaj Chetona, 1 January 2008). Of course, there are still problems. Workers wages are not paid within the first week of the month. Overtime payments are irregular. Festival allowances and festival leave is not forthcoming unless the girls take to the streets. The minimum wage (1,662.50 taka ?USD 24) is not paid. There is no earned leave. No weekly holidays. Girls do not get maternity leave. If they become pregnant, they get sacked. Appointment letters are not issued. No identity cards are given. They do not get government holidays . For unknown reasons, the eight hour work day, the result of the 1876 May Day movement, and other international movements organised by workers, is not followed in the garment factories. Safety standards in most factories, many of them located in residential areas as opposed to industrial ones, are horribly lacking. These factories, says Mishu, are “death traps.” These traps have killed five hundred workers. Electric short-circuits have led to fires, workers fleeing to save their lives have been trampled to death, locked exits have remained locked even during accidents, or poorly-built buildings have collapsed burying workers underneath the rubble. Mishu spoke of the collapsed Spectrum garment building in Savar, of factory workers in Tejgaon, and of KPS factory workers in Chittagong. Things are a bit better now, says Mishu, who has been organising workers, and fighting for their rights for the last thirteen years. It was far worse in the beginning. Girls would be worked to their bones. They would work the whole night, but would not get their night bills. Nor would they be paid their overtime bills. Often, not even their basic salaries. There would be a lot of dilly-dallying over wages, aj na kal, this would go on for 2-3-4-5 months. And then, one fine morning the girls would come and and find that the owners had packed up and left. In the middle of the night. No wages, no overtime, nothing in exchange for many months of hard labour. Having a trade union to protect their rights was unheard of. Not only was there no maternity leave, if a girl’s pregnancy was `discovered,’ she would immediately lose her job. She would be forced to leave, penniless. Physical assaults, beatings, threats of acid attack, other forms of intimidation were common. Owners do not regard workers as their colleagues or co-workers, but as slaves. As their servants However, Mishu adds, things have changed. Not big changes. Tiny ones. (Sromik Awaz, 12 January 2008). She goes on, I have seen many marriages break up. The factories had this outrageous attendance card system. It said, work hours are from 7 am to 5 pm. But, in practice, women worked till midnight. Or, till one in the morning. Why or how it is allowed to happen, I do not know, said Mishu. The 1965 law, the Factory Law says women workers work hours can only be from 7 in the morning to 8 at night. How that can be so blissfully violated in the case of garment factory workers, I do not know. Of course I understand, if there is a shipment yes, but surely there aren’t shipments the whole year round. Yes, I was talking about work hours, said Mishu, when girls returned home late, of course, they would be returning from work but since the attendance card said work hours were from 7 to 5, husbands would be suspicious. I know of husbands who would beat their wives, who would drag her by the hair, yell abuses, “Where have you been, you whore?” And also, in our country, it is not safe for women to be out so late at night. Rapes, gang rapes, these happen. They still do. Inside the factory too, there is a lot of sexual harassment. There are other problems, there are no colonies close to the factories where the girls can live. They come to Dhaka city in search of work, leaving behind their families in villages, in townships. They live here in a mess, many to a room, or they take in a sub-let room. They can pay the rent, or the local shopkeeper for food items, rice, salt, oil, on getting their wages. If they can’t pay, they are harassed by the landlord, or by the shopkeeper. I know of girls who have been turned out of their rooms by the landlord, sometimes in the middle of the night. Because they could not pay their rent. I have seen girls in Adabor (Mohammodpur), I have seen them take refuge in front of Shaymoli cinema hall, in the verandas of local mosques, and yes, even beneath a tree. And, as you know, girls working in garment factories are very young, as young as 16. The oldest girls are in their early to mid-twenties. Mishu said, the Emergency has affected the garment workers movement adversely. The May 2006 movement arose over piece rate payments. Payments were very low at the Apex factory. Workers protested, the police opened fire. Shohag, a young worker, was killed. The movement spread like wildfire, in Gazipur and beyond. It spread to Savar, to Ashulia. It erupted later again, in October. We achieved some, said Mishu, our demand for minimum wages, for setting up of a wage board. We also lost. The wage board would include representatives from both owners and workers. But both sets of representatives were to be selected by the owners! Eleven organisations had demanded a minimum wage of three thousand taka. But we were betrayed. Minimum wage was fixed at 1,162.50. But even that is not paid. Of course, we haven’t given up our demand for a minimum wage of three thousand taka. It is ridiculous to expect that workers can live, they can reproduce their labour power, at such low income levels. The Emergency has adversely affected the garment workers movement. It has made things much worse. Before, because of one movement after the other, there was some hope. The factory owners had nearly agreed to trade unions. I don’t know what the ILO (International Labour Organisation) office is doing sitting here in Dhaka, I am sure they know that trade union activities are banned. That workers do not have basic democratic rights. As a result of the Emergency, we cannot put any pressure on the owners to follow the 2006 tripartite agreement. We cannot pressurise the government either. The owners are benefiting from the Emergency. They are sacking workers, they are implicating both workers and leaders in false cases. There are 19 such false cases against me in Gazipur, and 7 in Ashulia. Working people are increasingly getting very angry. Spontaneous movements keep bursting out in different factories. Whenever any protest takes place, you get to hear another round of conspiracy theories. Either the workers are conspiring. Or their leaders are conspiring. Or, it is an international conspiracy. Issues of social justice in the sector that owns three-quarters of the nation’s foreign exchange earnings, are sidelined. As far as garment workers are concerned, this government is no different from other governments, said Mishu. It looks upon us as the enemy, as conspirators. It instructs the police to fire bullets at us. Things far worse happen to us. The Emergency has taken away our rights. It has increased the power of the owners over the workers. Our movement is part of the larger movement for democracy, not the state-sponsored one, but the people’s one. The real one. And of course, we wish to link up to other movements that oppress people. Postscript: A hundred years ago, Sultana had a dream. The lion is bigger and stronger than a man. Just like men who are [generally] bigger and stronger than women. One can invent similar parallels. Like factory owners, who are richer than workers, and have state backing unlike workers. Other parallels also come to mind. But in Sultana’s Dream there is a twist. Those who are stronger, and more powerful eventually lose. They are outwitted by their captives, who dreamt of freedom and emancipation. First published in New Age 8th March 2008	<urn:uuid:8a76544a-a794-4bd4-8f02-f7ad3eaa924a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://shahidulnews.com/tag/sultanas-dream/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00001.warc.gz	en	0.98193	2,379	3.296875	3	[ -0.4392627775669098, 0.27138984203338623, 0.09349055588245392, 0.3978051543235779, -0.33301836252212524, 0.4420352578163147, -0.06379285454750061, 0.5444806218147278, 0.057075925171375275, 0.10520598292350769, 0.09652362763881683, -0.09346762299537659, 0.08255073428153992, -0.22118376195430756, -0.14644363522529602, 0.38682442903518677, -0.5261615514755249, 0.11027607321739197, -1.2037523984909058, 0.4313117265701294, -0.034975361078977585, -0.710739016532898, -0.23873256146907806, -0.12287597358226776, 0.577937662601471, -0.2026754766702652, 0.09773226827383041, -0.024798518046736717, -0.2956511676311493, -1.4438233375549316, 0.046886883676052094, -0.14175575971603394, 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0.049849171191453934, -0.03848482668399811, 1.0040357112884521, -0.05859823524951935, 0.013183653354644775, -0.6835411787033081, 0.28782397508621216, 0.04371403902769089, -0.24737447500228882, -0.11314133554697037, 0.27001070976257324, 0.47536206245422363, 0.1282159686088562, 0.05665205419063568, -0.5354445576667786, -0.17000997066497803, 0.20624786615371704, -0.23512983322143555, -0.06272754818201065, 0.40448451042175293, -0.2473592311143875, 0.0559752993285656, 0.36391013860702515 ]	4	“A lion is stronger than a man, but it does not enable him to dominate the human race. You have neglected the duty you owe to yourselves and you have lost your natural rights by shutting your eyes to your own interests….” — Begum Rokeya, Sultana’s Dream (1908) New York, 1906 Clara Lemlich, a young Jewish woman, joined a group of shirtwaist makers. They wanted to form a union, but didn’t know how. Six young women, six young men and Clara formed Local 25. In those days, the ILGWU (International Ladies Garment Workers Union) was small. Most of its members were male cloakmakers. Although Clara was determined to be a “good girl,” two days later she was talking union. The oppressive conditions at work made her angry. The forewoman would follow the girls to the toilet. She would needle them to hurry. New girls would be cheated, their pay was always less than agreed upon. The girls would be fined for all sorts of things. They were charged for electricity, needles, and thread. “Mistakes” would be made in pay envelopes, they were difficult to get fixed. The clock was fixed so that lunch hour was twenty minutes short. Or, it would be set back an hour. Not knowing, they would work the extra hour. Unpaid (Meredith Tax, “The Uprising of the Thirty Thousand”). Clara took part in her first strike in 1907. At one of the union meetings, strikers argued about “pure-and-simple-trade-unionism.” Clara asked one of them what that meant. They went for a walk. Her first lesson in Marxism took place during that forty block long walk. “He started with a bottle of milk?how it was made, who made the money from it at every stage of its production. Not only did the boss take the profits, he said, but not a drop of milk did you drink unless he allowed you to. It was funny, you know, because I’d been saying things like that to the girls before. But now I understood it better and I began to use it more often?only with shirtwaists.” (Paula Scheier, “Clara Lemlich Shavelson”). In 1908, the first Women’s Day was initiated by socialist women in the United States. Large demonstrations were held. In 1909, a Women’s Day rally was held in Manhattan. It was attended by two thousand people. The same year, women garment workers staged a general strike. Known as the Uprising of the Thirty Thousand (or Twenty Thousand, depending on the source), the shirtwaist makers struck for thirteen weeks. The weeks were cold and wintry. They demanded better pay, better working conditions. Things are better now, says Moshrefa Mishu, president of the Garments Sromik Oikko Forum (Shomaj Chetona, 1 January 2008). Of course, there are still problems. Workers wages are not paid within the first week of the month. Overtime payments are irregular. Festival allowances and festival leave is not forthcoming unless the girls take to the streets. The minimum wage (1,662.50 taka ?USD 24) is not paid. There is no earned leave. No weekly holidays. Girls do not get maternity leave. If they become pregnant, they get sacked. Appointment letters are not issued. No identity cards are given. They do not get government holidays . For unknown reasons, the eight hour work day, the result of the 1876 May Day movement, and other international movements organised by workers, is not followed in the garment factories. Safety standards in most factories, many of them located in residential areas as opposed to industrial ones, are horribly lacking. These factories, says Mishu, are “death traps.” These traps have killed five hundred workers. Electric short-circuits have led to fires, workers fleeing to save their lives have been trampled to death, locked exits have remained locked even during accidents, or poorly-built buildings have collapsed burying workers underneath the rubble. Mishu spoke of the collapsed Spectrum garment building in Savar, of factory workers in Tejgaon, and of KPS factory workers in Chittagong. Things are a bit better now, says Mishu, who has been organising workers, and fighting for their rights for the last thirteen years. It was far worse in the beginning. Girls would be worked to their bones. They would work the whole night, but would not get their night bills. Nor would they be paid their overtime bills. Often, not even their basic salaries. There would be a lot of dilly-dallying over wages, aj na kal, this would go on for 2-3-4-5 months. And then, one fine morning the girls would come and and find that the owners had packed up and left. In the middle of the night. No wages, no overtime, nothing in exchange for many months of hard labour. Having a trade union to protect their rights was unheard of. Not only was there no maternity leave, if a girl’s pregnancy was `discovered,’ she would immediately lose her job. She would be forced to leave, penniless. Physical assaults, beatings, threats of acid attack, other forms of intimidation were common. Owners do not regard workers as their colleagues or co-workers, but as slaves. As their servants However, Mishu adds, things have changed. Not big changes. Tiny ones. (Sromik Awaz, 12 January 2008). She goes on, I have seen many marriages break up. The factories had this outrageous attendance card system. It said, work hours are from 7 am to 5 pm. But, in practice, women worked till midnight. Or, till one in the morning. Why or how it is allowed to happen, I do not know, said Mishu. The 1965 law, the Factory Law says women workers work hours can only be from 7 in the morning to 8 at night. How that can be so blissfully violated in the case of garment factory workers, I do not know. Of course I understand, if there is a shipment yes, but surely there aren’t shipments the whole year round. Yes, I was talking about work hours, said Mishu, when girls returned home late, of course, they would be returning from work but since the attendance card said work hours were from 7 to 5, husbands would be suspicious. I know of husbands who would beat their wives, who would drag her by the hair, yell abuses, “Where have you been, you whore?” And also, in our country, it is not safe for women to be out so late at night. Rapes, gang rapes, these happen. They still do. Inside the factory too, there is a lot of sexual harassment. There are other problems, there are no colonies close to the factories where the girls can live. They come to Dhaka city in search of work, leaving behind their families in villages, in townships. They live here in a mess, many to a room, or they take in a sub-let room. They can pay the rent, or the local shopkeeper for food items, rice, salt, oil, on getting their wages. If they can’t pay, they are harassed by the landlord, or by the shopkeeper. I know of girls who have been turned out of their rooms by the landlord, sometimes in the middle of the night. Because they could not pay their rent. I have seen girls in Adabor (Mohammodpur), I have seen them take refuge in front of Shaymoli cinema hall, in the verandas of local mosques, and yes, even beneath a tree. And, as you know, girls working in garment factories are very young, as young as 16. The oldest girls are in their early to mid-twenties. Mishu said, the Emergency has affected the garment workers movement adversely. The May 2006 movement arose over piece rate payments. Payments were very low at the Apex factory. Workers protested, the police opened fire. Shohag, a young worker, was killed. The movement spread like wildfire, in Gazipur and beyond. It spread to Savar, to Ashulia. It erupted later again, in October. We achieved some, said Mishu, our demand for minimum wages, for setting up of a wage board. We also lost. The wage board would include representatives from both owners and workers. But both sets of representatives were to be selected by the owners! Eleven organisations had demanded a minimum wage of three thousand taka. But we were betrayed. Minimum wage was fixed at 1,162.50. But even that is not paid. Of course, we haven’t given up our demand for a minimum wage of three thousand taka. It is ridiculous to expect that workers can live, they can reproduce their labour power, at such low income levels. The Emergency has adversely affected the garment workers movement. It has made things much worse. Before, because of one movement after the other, there was some hope. The factory owners had nearly agreed to trade unions. I don’t know what the ILO (International Labour Organisation) office is doing sitting here in Dhaka, I am sure they know that trade union activities are banned. That workers do not have basic democratic rights. As a result of the Emergency, we cannot put any pressure on the owners to follow the 2006 tripartite agreement. We cannot pressurise the government either. The owners are benefiting from the Emergency. They are sacking workers, they are implicating both workers and leaders in false cases. There are 19 such false cases against me in Gazipur, and 7 in Ashulia. Working people are increasingly getting very angry. Spontaneous movements keep bursting out in different factories. Whenever any protest takes place, you get to hear another round of conspiracy theories. Either the workers are conspiring. Or their leaders are conspiring. Or, it is an international conspiracy. Issues of social justice in the sector that owns three-quarters of the nation’s foreign exchange earnings, are sidelined. As far as garment workers are concerned, this government is no different from other governments, said Mishu. It looks upon us as the enemy, as conspirators. It instructs the police to fire bullets at us. Things far worse happen to us. The Emergency has taken away our rights. It has increased the power of the owners over the workers. Our movement is part of the larger movement for democracy, not the state-sponsored one, but the people’s one. The real one. And of course, we wish to link up to other movements that oppress people. Postscript: A hundred years ago, Sultana had a dream. The lion is bigger and stronger than a man. Just like men who are [generally] bigger and stronger than women. One can invent similar parallels. Like factory owners, who are richer than workers, and have state backing unlike workers. Other parallels also come to mind. But in Sultana’s Dream there is a twist. Those who are stronger, and more powerful eventually lose. They are outwitted by their captives, who dreamt of freedom and emancipation. First published in New Age 8th March 2008	2,374	ENGLISH	1
Statistics are a very important part of following baseball. They help fans and coaches keep track of a particular player's performance. There are three main categories of statistics: batting, pitching, and fielding. Batting average (abbreviated BA or AVG) is calculated by dividing a player's number of hits by his number of at bats. It is often used as a measure of consistency and is always written as a decimal to the thousandths place. An average BA is around .260, and a good BA is around .300. Runs batted in (RBIs) is the number of times a player's hit directly causes a run to be scored. Let's say there is a runner on third base and the batter hits a single, allowing the runner on third to score a run, in this example, the batter is credited with an RBI. Runs are slightly different than RBIs, they are the number of times a player has scored a run. (In the above scenario, the runner on third who scored would be credited with a run.) Home runs are the number of times a player has hit a home run. Similarly, stolen bases are the number of times a player has stolen a base. Pitching statistics are used to analyze a pitcher's performance. The five main pitching statistics are wins, earned run average (ERA), walks and hits per innings pitched (WHIP), strikeouts, and saves. A win is credited to the pitcher who was pitching when his team scored the winning run(s). For example, if a pitcher was pitching during the inning where his team scored three runs to win the game, he would get the win. If the team loses and regains the lead, and ends up winning, the pitcher who was pitching when the second lead was gained would get the win. Additionally, for a starting pitcher to qualify for a win, he must have pitched five or more consecutive innings. Earned run average (ERA) is calculated by dividing the number of earned runs a pitcher has given up, by the number of innings he has pitched, and then multiplying this quotient by nine. It indicates how effectively a pitcher can prevent runs from being scored. It is written as a decimal to the hundredths place. An average ERA is around 4.00, while a good ERA is around 3.00 or under. Walks and hits per innings pitched (WHIP) is calculated as its name suggests: by adding up the number of walks and hits a pitcher has given up, then dividing that number by his number of innings pitched. It indicates how effectively a pitcher can keep runners from reaching base, and is written as a decimal to the hundredths place. An average WHIP is around 1.30, while a good WHIP is around 1.10 or under. Saves are statistics used to measure the performance of relief pitchers and closers. They are different from wins, as saves deal with the preservation of a lead and not the gaining of one. To qualify for a lead, a relief pitcher's team must be winning by three or fewer runs. If the lead is only one run, the tying run must be on-deck, at bat, or on a base. The pitcher must also pitch three or more innings. Errors are the number of times a player messes up a play that he would have otherwise completed. Errors are often seen as below the expectation for a player's level of ability. For example, if a fielder in the MLB caught a ball but it slips out of his glove, that could count as an error since his level of ability indicates that he should have been able to hold onto it. Double plays measure a team's performance. It is the number of times fielders on a team were able to make two outs in one play.	<urn:uuid:37e25bd2-da14-4552-8fe0-384f6cfc5c15>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.rookieroad.com/baseball/statistics/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00333.warc.gz	en	0.987338	776	3.375	3	[ 0.02545541152358055, 0.07377658784389496, 0.07968702912330627, -0.4121251702308655, 0.20709694921970367, 0.21674908697605133, 0.4376170039176941, 0.17815972864627838, 0.519279956817627, 0.13045185804367065, 0.24881750345230103, -0.3197619915008545, 0.02318781241774559, 0.20120057463645935, -0.6348342895507812, 0.1449260711669922, -0.3097604811191559, 0.17083340883255005, -0.29625388979911804, -0.047555144876241684, 0.5090022087097168, 0.13202914595603943, 0.13211245834827423, -0.33008867502212524, 0.5814237594604492, 0.3249650299549103, -0.40788716077804565, -0.3778303563594818, -0.5448014736175537, -1.59759521484375, -0.2150738686323166, 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They help fans and coaches keep track of a particular player's performance. There are three main categories of statistics: batting, pitching, and fielding. Batting average (abbreviated BA or AVG) is calculated by dividing a player's number of hits by his number of at bats. It is often used as a measure of consistency and is always written as a decimal to the thousandths place. An average BA is around .260, and a good BA is around .300. Runs batted in (RBIs) is the number of times a player's hit directly causes a run to be scored. Let's say there is a runner on third base and the batter hits a single, allowing the runner on third to score a run, in this example, the batter is credited with an RBI. Runs are slightly different than RBIs, they are the number of times a player has scored a run. (In the above scenario, the runner on third who scored would be credited with a run.) Home runs are the number of times a player has hit a home run. Similarly, stolen bases are the number of times a player has stolen a base. Pitching statistics are used to analyze a pitcher's performance. The five main pitching statistics are wins, earned run average (ERA), walks and hits per innings pitched (WHIP), strikeouts, and saves. A win is credited to the pitcher who was pitching when his team scored the winning run(s). For example, if a pitcher was pitching during the inning where his team scored three runs to win the game, he would get the win. If the team loses and regains the lead, and ends up winning, the pitcher who was pitching when the second lead was gained would get the win. Additionally, for a starting pitcher to qualify for a win, he must have pitched five or more consecutive innings. Earned run average (ERA) is calculated by dividing the number of earned runs a pitcher has given up, by the number of innings he has pitched, and then multiplying this quotient by nine. It indicates how effectively a pitcher can prevent runs from being scored. It is written as a decimal to the hundredths place. An average ERA is around 4.00, while a good ERA is around 3.00 or under. Walks and hits per innings pitched (WHIP) is calculated as its name suggests: by adding up the number of walks and hits a pitcher has given up, then dividing that number by his number of innings pitched. It indicates how effectively a pitcher can keep runners from reaching base, and is written as a decimal to the hundredths place. An average WHIP is around 1.30, while a good WHIP is around 1.10 or under. Saves are statistics used to measure the performance of relief pitchers and closers. They are different from wins, as saves deal with the preservation of a lead and not the gaining of one. To qualify for a lead, a relief pitcher's team must be winning by three or fewer runs. If the lead is only one run, the tying run must be on-deck, at bat, or on a base. The pitcher must also pitch three or more innings. Errors are the number of times a player messes up a play that he would have otherwise completed. Errors are often seen as below the expectation for a player's level of ability. For example, if a fielder in the MLB caught a ball but it slips out of his glove, that could count as an error since his level of ability indicates that he should have been able to hold onto it. Double plays measure a team's performance. It is the number of times fielders on a team were able to make two outs in one play.	773	ENGLISH	1
Treatment of Slaves: Labor Conditions William S. Drewry (1870 - 1948) presented a positive view of slavery in his book The Southampton Insurrection. He interviewed a number of old former slaves and noted how good their lives were before the Nat Turner rebellion. Consequently there was a division of labor under the slave regime exceeding that of any farm of the present day, which made it possible to assign each set of hands their duty and to dispense with the cruelties which have been mistakenly attributed to the slave system employed in the production of large tobacco and cotton crops. There were valuable cotton and tobacco farms, but none of them very extensive, and no one owned more than seventy-five or eighty slaves, the average number owned by a family being five or six. No overseer was needed, and when employed he occupied the position of general director and not arbitrary lord and master. He was responsible to the owner of the slaves, but the negro foreman also exercised authority and reported irregularities to his master. Thus the former was restrained by fear of losing his position. But the general custom was for each master to manage for himself, and place a foreman in the person of one of their own number over each squad of slaves assigned to a special duty. This system dispensed more or less with that class of “poor whites” which has so often been depicted as the evil of slavery. They did not consider it a disgrace to work side by side with the slaves, since they did not have the legal equality of the negro continually thrust at them. With the consciousness of being able to rise to the position of foreman, each slave was incited to interest in his work. He realized that his master’s interest was his. The hog feeder was proud to exhibit his drove of hogs, the herdsman and shepherd pointed to their flocks with pride, and the hostler boasted of the fastest and best bred horses on the road. The old “stiller” smiled when his brandy was praised, and the cook was aware of her superiority. The old nurse was conscious of her power and the love and respect of the whites. Each department had its negro foreman and his or her associates, the former a master in his profession, instructing the latter in the mysteries thereof. By means of this class system among the slaves, the barriers of which could be overcome by diligence and respect, they were controlled with ease and inspired with ambition far surpassing that of the negro of today, who is conscious of his inability to attain the boasted equality with whites, and consequently mediates revenge and cherishes hatred. Fealty and diligence were also encouraged by confidence on the part of the master, who rewarded his servants with crops, gardens, and other property, the proceeds from which were spent at their discretion. Slaves were often allowed to choose their own employer and make their own contracts. Holidays were frequent. From sunrise to sunset was the time for labor, but breakfast and dinner, in the meantime, occupied at least three hours. This limit was not strictly insisted on, as is shown by the reply of an old negro, who, when asked by his mistress why he was sitting on the fence while the sun was still above the horizon, replied; “Waitin’ for de sun to go down, mum.” Saturday was a holiday for the deserving, and Sunday was spent as the slave liked. If his was not promptly on hand Monday morning he was not punished. Journals of Virginia Legislature: Page, Social Life in Virginia. An old negro who knew Nat Turner said the latter could go away on Sunday, and if he did not return until Monday morning nothing was said to him. This, he continued, was the case with all the faithful slaves before the insurrection, but afterward if one did not return in time, “dis here thing was tuck off, an’ de back picked jest like a chicken pickin’ corn.” From William S. Drewry, The Southampton Insurrection (Washington D.C.: The Neal Company), 106-108.	<urn:uuid:11823e19-4ff1-48ab-b6fc-4bd0cd1ce6a8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.natturnerproject.org/blank-c57w	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00479.warc.gz	en	0.988298	844	3.65625	4	[ -0.15979039669036865, 0.5273624658584595, 0.4459989070892334, 0.3415623903274536, -0.25788095593452454, -0.15662845969200134, 0.03094356507062912, -0.35903453826904297, -0.2969707250595093, 0.1798563003540039, 0.17596717178821564, -0.2622482180595398, -0.3167330026626587, 0.3607691526412964, -0.2312801480293274, 0.02126999758183956, -0.3224467933177948, 1.0915470123291016, -0.7482249736785889, 0.453091025352478, 0.2286090850830078, 0.010804740712046623, -0.6040324568748474, -0.2563588619232178, -0.004821021109819412, -0.11670134961605072, 0.4358190596103668, 0.04615072160959244, -0.3384259343147278, -1.471944808959961, -0.026489071547985077, 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0.15353332459926605, 0.38634252548217773, -0.0704871267080307, 0.8318408131599426, 0.17664623260498047, -0.1599324345588684, -0.38005679845809937, 0.32736700773239136, 0.215440571308136, 0.0034807641059160233, 0.25275081396102905, 0.2873910367488861, 0.25945061445236206, 0.4346560835838318, 0.01548398844897747, -0.7296211123466492, 0.08339449018239975, 0.33808013796806335, -0.012786855921149254, -0.48532629013061523, 0.04297282546758652, -0.18467000126838684, 0.08584064245223999, -0.18063496053218842 ]	4	Treatment of Slaves: Labor Conditions William S. Drewry (1870 - 1948) presented a positive view of slavery in his book The Southampton Insurrection. He interviewed a number of old former slaves and noted how good their lives were before the Nat Turner rebellion. Consequently there was a division of labor under the slave regime exceeding that of any farm of the present day, which made it possible to assign each set of hands their duty and to dispense with the cruelties which have been mistakenly attributed to the slave system employed in the production of large tobacco and cotton crops. There were valuable cotton and tobacco farms, but none of them very extensive, and no one owned more than seventy-five or eighty slaves, the average number owned by a family being five or six. No overseer was needed, and when employed he occupied the position of general director and not arbitrary lord and master. He was responsible to the owner of the slaves, but the negro foreman also exercised authority and reported irregularities to his master. Thus the former was restrained by fear of losing his position. But the general custom was for each master to manage for himself, and place a foreman in the person of one of their own number over each squad of slaves assigned to a special duty. This system dispensed more or less with that class of “poor whites” which has so often been depicted as the evil of slavery. They did not consider it a disgrace to work side by side with the slaves, since they did not have the legal equality of the negro continually thrust at them. With the consciousness of being able to rise to the position of foreman, each slave was incited to interest in his work. He realized that his master’s interest was his. The hog feeder was proud to exhibit his drove of hogs, the herdsman and shepherd pointed to their flocks with pride, and the hostler boasted of the fastest and best bred horses on the road. The old “stiller” smiled when his brandy was praised, and the cook was aware of her superiority. The old nurse was conscious of her power and the love and respect of the whites. Each department had its negro foreman and his or her associates, the former a master in his profession, instructing the latter in the mysteries thereof. By means of this class system among the slaves, the barriers of which could be overcome by diligence and respect, they were controlled with ease and inspired with ambition far surpassing that of the negro of today, who is conscious of his inability to attain the boasted equality with whites, and consequently mediates revenge and cherishes hatred. Fealty and diligence were also encouraged by confidence on the part of the master, who rewarded his servants with crops, gardens, and other property, the proceeds from which were spent at their discretion. Slaves were often allowed to choose their own employer and make their own contracts. Holidays were frequent. From sunrise to sunset was the time for labor, but breakfast and dinner, in the meantime, occupied at least three hours. This limit was not strictly insisted on, as is shown by the reply of an old negro, who, when asked by his mistress why he was sitting on the fence while the sun was still above the horizon, replied; “Waitin’ for de sun to go down, mum.” Saturday was a holiday for the deserving, and Sunday was spent as the slave liked. If his was not promptly on hand Monday morning he was not punished. Journals of Virginia Legislature: Page, Social Life in Virginia. An old negro who knew Nat Turner said the latter could go away on Sunday, and if he did not return until Monday morning nothing was said to him. This, he continued, was the case with all the faithful slaves before the insurrection, but afterward if one did not return in time, “dis here thing was tuck off, an’ de back picked jest like a chicken pickin’ corn.” From William S. Drewry, The Southampton Insurrection (Washington D.C.: The Neal Company), 106-108.	831	ENGLISH	1
DOMESDAY SURVEY Grade 7 William was concerned that his new kingdom might be attacked from abroad. • So he wanted to bring more soldiers from France for protection. • The question was, could he get more taxes from the English to pay for their support? • In fact, William did not really know how wealthy England was. • So, he decided to find out. In 1086, he sent officials to carry out an enormous survey. • When they had finished asking their questions, a second group of officials was sent to check if the villagers had been telling the truth. • This became known as the Domesday Survey . • Domesday is the day of judgment – no one escapes that, and no one seemed to be able to escape William’s Survey. William’s officials completed their task in just under a year. • It was a tremendous achievement and it told William just what he wanted to know. • Many people were much richer than he had realised. • Now he could make them pay the correct amount of tax. • The information collected was written in the Domesday Book. • These have survived to the present day and are very useful to historians.	<urn:uuid:dc411a53-7575-42b9-8fb4-d01fc427b489>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.slideserve.com/haracha/domesday-survey	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00313.warc.gz	en	0.991111	244	4.21875	4	[ -0.2492808848619461, 0.19238072633743286, 0.16680951416492462, -0.14442194998264313, 0.279684454202652, 0.04620900750160217, -0.0374121218919754, -0.21554291248321533, -0.055539488792419434, 0.1529739499092102, 0.06611210107803345, -0.3028538227081299, 0.0421115905046463, 0.36256057024002075, -0.06868404895067215, -0.013492401689291, 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question was, could he get more taxes from the English to pay for their support? • In fact, William did not really know how wealthy England was. • So, he decided to find out. In 1086, he sent officials to carry out an enormous survey. • When they had finished asking their questions, a second group of officials was sent to check if the villagers had been telling the truth. • This became known as the Domesday Survey . • Domesday is the day of judgment – no one escapes that, and no one seemed to be able to escape William’s Survey. William’s officials completed their task in just under a year. • It was a tremendous achievement and it told William just what he wanted to know. • Many people were much richer than he had realised. • Now he could make them pay the correct amount of tax. • The information collected was written in the Domesday Book. • These have survived to the present day and are very useful to historians.	242	ENGLISH	1
St Thomas More (1478-1535) was the son of Sir John More, a barrister and judge in the City of London who married four times. It is thought Thomas’ mother was Agnes Graunger, his father’s first wife. Thomas followed his father by practicing Law but did initially consider a vocation to the priesthood. In 1504 he entered Parliament. He married Jane Colt in 1505 and three daughters and a son were born of the marriage. But Jane died in 1511 and Thomas More married Alice Middleton, a widow, a few weeks after his first wife’s death. Henry VIII, who became king in 1509, recognised Thomas More’s integrity and his many gifts. He promoted him to a whole series of public offices. More became Lord Chancellor of England in 1529, succeeding Cardinal Wolseley who fell out of favour with the king for failing to secure papal approval for Henry to divorce his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. Thomas More was greatly influenced by the intellectual movements of the time. The Dutch humanist, Erasmus of Rotterdam, became his great friend. More gained a reputation as a man of letters, introducing the spirit and learning of the Renaissance into England. His most notable publication was Utopia (1516). His cultured and happy family life included the education of his daughters, especially Margaret Roper, to a level surpassing what was available to most women of the time. More lived on a grand scale appropriate to his rank and social position, but regularly involved himself and his family in prayers and mortification. He was a man of deep spirituality. Henry VIII often called at More’s Chelsea home on the River Thames, arriving by barge. But Henry’s marriage plans, resulting from his lack of a male heir, began to cause problems with the friendship. When the clergy declared the King to be the Supreme Head of the Church of England in 1532, More resigned the Chancellorship. In 1534 he was required to swear that he recognised, as heir to the throne, the infant daughter born from Henry’s second marriage to Anne Boleyn. He was ready to do this, since Parliament had so decided, but he declined to take the oath in the form in which it was worded as it obliged him to reject the spiritual authority of the pope within the Church in England. Because of this he was imprisoned in the Tower of London. A body of legislation was then passed by Parliament under which it became high treason, punishable by death, to refuse to acknowledge the King as Head of the Church. More remained silent when asked to make this acknowledgement. He was brought to trial and despite a skillful defense, was found guilty. Thomas More was beheaded on Tower Hill on 6 July 1535. He went to his death with the words of being “the King’s good servant, but God’s first.” Thomas More was canonised in 1935. His feast day is observed on 22 June, a feast he shares with his friend John Fisher, bishop of Rochester, who was beheaded on Tower Hill on that day in 1535, just two week’s before More’s execution. Robert Bolt’s play about St Thomas More enables us to remember him as “A Man for All Seasons”. 384 total views, 1 views today	<urn:uuid:32bf0854-aacd-45bd-ad66-f8ff675e6da4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thomasmorebrighton.org.au/history/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00167.warc.gz	en	0.989215	703	3.609375	4	[ 0.17283625900745392, 0.1640344262123108, 0.30921614170074463, -0.5827402472496033, -0.07843847572803497, -0.3918514847755432, -0.00043816491961479187, 0.1570272147655487, 0.28308403491973877, -0.11182776093482971, -0.3145372271537781, -0.45548203587532043, -0.02938285656273365, 0.2699679136276245, 0.3275812268257141, 0.001911261468194425, -0.4958724081516266, 0.13062113523483276, -1.1332674026489258, 0.1983971893787384, 0.2806027829647064, -0.2671624422073364, -0.1285373419523239, -0.061912551522254944, 0.2049584537744522, -0.024901101365685463, -0.12466966360807419, -0.35331785678863525, 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It is thought Thomas’ mother was Agnes Graunger, his father’s first wife. Thomas followed his father by practicing Law but did initially consider a vocation to the priesthood. In 1504 he entered Parliament. He married Jane Colt in 1505 and three daughters and a son were born of the marriage. But Jane died in 1511 and Thomas More married Alice Middleton, a widow, a few weeks after his first wife’s death. Henry VIII, who became king in 1509, recognised Thomas More’s integrity and his many gifts. He promoted him to a whole series of public offices. More became Lord Chancellor of England in 1529, succeeding Cardinal Wolseley who fell out of favour with the king for failing to secure papal approval for Henry to divorce his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. Thomas More was greatly influenced by the intellectual movements of the time. The Dutch humanist, Erasmus of Rotterdam, became his great friend. More gained a reputation as a man of letters, introducing the spirit and learning of the Renaissance into England. His most notable publication was Utopia (1516). His cultured and happy family life included the education of his daughters, especially Margaret Roper, to a level surpassing what was available to most women of the time. More lived on a grand scale appropriate to his rank and social position, but regularly involved himself and his family in prayers and mortification. He was a man of deep spirituality. Henry VIII often called at More’s Chelsea home on the River Thames, arriving by barge. But Henry’s marriage plans, resulting from his lack of a male heir, began to cause problems with the friendship. When the clergy declared the King to be the Supreme Head of the Church of England in 1532, More resigned the Chancellorship. In 1534 he was required to swear that he recognised, as heir to the throne, the infant daughter born from Henry’s second marriage to Anne Boleyn. He was ready to do this, since Parliament had so decided, but he declined to take the oath in the form in which it was worded as it obliged him to reject the spiritual authority of the pope within the Church in England. Because of this he was imprisoned in the Tower of London. A body of legislation was then passed by Parliament under which it became high treason, punishable by death, to refuse to acknowledge the King as Head of the Church. More remained silent when asked to make this acknowledgement. He was brought to trial and despite a skillful defense, was found guilty. Thomas More was beheaded on Tower Hill on 6 July 1535. He went to his death with the words of being “the King’s good servant, but God’s first.” Thomas More was canonised in 1935. His feast day is observed on 22 June, a feast he shares with his friend John Fisher, bishop of Rochester, who was beheaded on Tower Hill on that day in 1535, just two week’s before More’s execution. Robert Bolt’s play about St Thomas More enables us to remember him as “A Man for All Seasons”. 384 total views, 1 views today	706	ENGLISH	1
King Jeroboam in the north ruled the other tribes and he didn’t want them going down to Jerusalem to make pilgrimages to the temple. He set up two altars for worship in Samaria and way up north in Dan. Some scholars have wondered why Mary and Joseph, both descendants from the tribe of Judah, were living in Nazareth in northern Israel. In ancient times after King Solomon died, the kingdom of Israel in the north had split away from the kingdom of Judah in the south. The tribes in Judah (Judea) were the tribes of Judah, Levi, and some of Benjamin. (The Levites served in the Temple.) King Jeroboam in the north ruled the other tribes and he didn’t want them going down to Jerusalem to make pilgrimages to the temple. He set up two altars for worship in Samaria and way up north in Dan. These centers for worship had the people of Israel worshipping a golden calf, “the god who led them out of Egypt.” This didn’t sit very well with the righteous, especially if they were from the tribes that were in the majority in Judea, so these people tended to move back to the south. Around 730 B.C. the northern kingdom of Israel was attacked by the Assyrians who were exceptionally ruthless. They killed many and carried others away to Assyria. They transplanted loyal subjects from around the empire into Israel. Around 600 B.C. the Babylonians attacked Judah. The Babylonians were ruthless, too. They killed many and carried others away to Babylon, leaving behind only those who were very poor, lower-class people. Instead of a thriving city, Jerusalem was a backwater ruin while the Jews were captive in Babylon. They started to return about 70 years later but it took a long time to rebuild. Around 330 B.C. the Greek Empire overran both Israel and Judea. In about 175 B.C. a farming family, the “Maccabees,” fought off a Greco-Syrian alliance. The Maccabees took charge of the southern kingdom and they were called the Hasmonean Dynasty simply because Matthias, the father in the family, was from a place called Hasmonea. The Hasmoneans were in power (and very corrupt) when the Romans came in. They had had some success in expanding Judea’s territory into the north. Some scholars think that anyone up there from the tribe of Judah must have had some sort of government job that reported back to Jerusalem. So perhaps the grandparents and parents of Mary and Joseph had served the Hasmonean government in some way. We do know that Mary and Joseph themselves were very faithful Jews who made pilgrimage with their extended family to Jerusalem for the High Holy Days.	<urn:uuid:0af59ef0-ebda-4e68-a00b-1db131655bb2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://jesus.christ.org/history-rituals/jews-in-nazareth/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00400.warc.gz	en	0.986635	579	3.5625	4	[ -0.058335378766059875, 0.6910245418548584, 0.23878037929534912, -0.31371039152145386, -0.3749883770942688, -0.023463167250156403, 0.033323418349027634, 0.23964008688926697, -0.04524512588977814, 0.23590968549251556, -0.25805264711380005, 0.030015641823410988, 0.26019757986068726, -0.01272500678896904, 0.011154674924910069, -0.10715979337692261, -0.7160326242446899, 0.44232177734375, -0.7947632670402527, 0.39826610684394836, 0.4006410837173462, -0.3105149567127228, 0.4057614803314209, -0.26427382230758667, 0.4491792321205139, 0.2801986336708069, -0.03950127586722374, 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He set up two altars for worship in Samaria and way up north in Dan. Some scholars have wondered why Mary and Joseph, both descendants from the tribe of Judah, were living in Nazareth in northern Israel. In ancient times after King Solomon died, the kingdom of Israel in the north had split away from the kingdom of Judah in the south. The tribes in Judah (Judea) were the tribes of Judah, Levi, and some of Benjamin. (The Levites served in the Temple.) King Jeroboam in the north ruled the other tribes and he didn’t want them going down to Jerusalem to make pilgrimages to the temple. He set up two altars for worship in Samaria and way up north in Dan. These centers for worship had the people of Israel worshipping a golden calf, “the god who led them out of Egypt.” This didn’t sit very well with the righteous, especially if they were from the tribes that were in the majority in Judea, so these people tended to move back to the south. Around 730 B.C. the northern kingdom of Israel was attacked by the Assyrians who were exceptionally ruthless. They killed many and carried others away to Assyria. They transplanted loyal subjects from around the empire into Israel. Around 600 B.C. the Babylonians attacked Judah. The Babylonians were ruthless, too. They killed many and carried others away to Babylon, leaving behind only those who were very poor, lower-class people. Instead of a thriving city, Jerusalem was a backwater ruin while the Jews were captive in Babylon. They started to return about 70 years later but it took a long time to rebuild. Around 330 B.C. the Greek Empire overran both Israel and Judea. In about 175 B.C. a farming family, the “Maccabees,” fought off a Greco-Syrian alliance. The Maccabees took charge of the southern kingdom and they were called the Hasmonean Dynasty simply because Matthias, the father in the family, was from a place called Hasmonea. The Hasmoneans were in power (and very corrupt) when the Romans came in. They had had some success in expanding Judea’s territory into the north. Some scholars think that anyone up there from the tribe of Judah must have had some sort of government job that reported back to Jerusalem. So perhaps the grandparents and parents of Mary and Joseph had served the Hasmonean government in some way. We do know that Mary and Joseph themselves were very faithful Jews who made pilgrimage with their extended family to Jerusalem for the High Holy Days.	577	ENGLISH	1
William Shakespeare (1564-1616) was born in Stratford-upon-Avon, England. He was the son of John and Mary Shakespeare. William attended his town’s local grammar school at age six and graduated ten years later. When he was eighteen, he married a woman named Anne Hathaway who gave birth to twins, Hamnet and Judith. Hamnet drowned a few years later. It is said that William named his famous play Hamlet after his son and included a drowning scene in his honor. After the loss of his son, William left his family behind and headed for London to write plays. He was a poet and playwright. He wrote many famous plays, including Macbeth, Hamlet, and Romeo and Juliet. His stories were very popular with the English people because some of them were about English kings, like Henry IV. One of the characters from Henry IV was Falstaff, a drunk and crude knight. People liked him so much that William wrote another play using Falstaff, entitled The Merry Wives of Windsor. Shakespeare lived during the Renaissance period, and was one of the most influential playwrights of his time. Hamlet is set in medieval times and relates the story of Hamlet, who is the son of the dead King of Denmark, which appears as a ghost. The ghost appears at midnight and hints to Hamlet and his two friends Horatio and Marcellus about his murder. Hamlets mother, Gertrude, quickly marries Hamlets Uncle Claudius barely before the Kings body is even cold. Hamlet finds out that Claudius poisoned his father while he was sleeping to gain control of the throne. Hamlet confronts his mother about knowing about the murder of his father, and her affair with Claudius. Claudius attempts to kill Hamlet on a vacation voyage to England, by getting Rosncrantz and Guildenstern, Hamlets boyhood friends to carry a letter to the King of England to chop off Hamlets head. Hamlet intercepts the letter, and sends a letter to the King of England, telling him to immediately cut off the heads of the messengers. Hamlet then plots to kill Claudius because He killed my king and whored my mother. Laertes is allowed a duel against Hamlet to revenge his father, Polonius, murder. Halfway into the duel, Claudius toasts the duelers, and drops a poison-coated pearl into the wine as an inducement for Hamlet to finish the drink. However, Gertrude decides to drink it herself. The duel continues and both are wounded by Larertes poisoned dagger. Gertrude falls to the ground and says Claudius has poisoned her. Hamlet stabs Claudius and forces the poisoned wine down his throat. In the end, all of the main characters are murdered. Hamlet is the main character who is the son of the murdered King of Denmark. Hamlet is a round and dynamic character. He is revenging the death of his father, but turns out he kills Polonius thinking it is his evil Uncle Claudius behind a tapestry. In the end, Hamlet goes insane by the ghostly father and the dastardly plot he unravels. He is killed in a duel with Laertes by the poisonous dagger. Claudius is the evil uncle who killed Hamlets father and had an affair with his mother. He marries Gertrude then plots to kill Hamlet. His plot succeeds in the end, but with it comes the death of his wife and himself. I choose Hamlet, (of course the good guy) because of his extreme will to get revenge. I could understand what it would feel like to lose your father and find out that the murder was your mothers new husband. He had to feel love for his mother, but he had to get revenge for his ghostly father. The internal conflict is Hamlets love for his mother and hate for his fathers murderer, Claudius. The conflict was resolved when Claudius accidentally poisoned his mother and killed Claudius to revenge both his fathers and mothers death. The external conflict was when Hamlet accidentally killed Polonius thus driving Ophelia to suicide. The conflict is resolved when Laertes, (the son of Polonius and Ophelias bother) and Hamlet stab each other with the poisoned dagger. The theme of the play is revenge and justice. Throughout the story, each character is further entwined into a web of revenge and deceit. I liked the play because there is a lot of fighting and revengeful plotting throughout it. Many people are killed in this battle of revengeful conflict. If my father were killed, I would vow for revenge just like Hamlet. This book is a classic because it shows how easy people become obsessed with revenge and how it only leads to travesty. Also, the fact that Shakespeare, the most noted play writer, wrote it does not hurt either. The title is fairly self-explanatory, due to the fact that Hamlet is the main character of the play.	<urn:uuid:3c80c486-4ed0-4c20-ae6b-ac52af443cda>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://monsterliterature.com/william-shakespeare-biography-essay/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00466.warc.gz	en	0.985223	1,046	3.65625	4	[ 0.15643493831157684, -0.15124113857746124, 0.8475777506828308, 0.019794754683971405, -0.5188791751861572, -0.4339895248413086, 0.2686130404472351, 0.37564677000045776, -0.10939909517765045, -0.23725610971450806, -0.13911226391792297, -0.28613999485969543, -0.2675548195838928, 0.13459312915802002, -0.13976475596427917, -0.24987782537937164, 0.06289757788181305, 0.4676709771156311, -0.8364802598953247, 0.1346629112958908, 0.48362207412719727, 0.04956555366516113, -0.1628361940383911, -0.3217812180519104, 0.15762990713119507, 0.29731515049934387, 0.49061328172683716, -0.48671969771385193, 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0.11943117529153824, 0.09831705689430237, 0.021901089698076248, -0.017516570165753365, -0.409342885017395, -0.11873094737529755, 0.11294956505298615, 0.9308652281761169, -0.014193610288202763, -0.37795907258987427, 0.14127442240715027, 0.2492707073688507, -0.1346065253019333, 0.4610370099544525, 0.2918030321598053, 0.3879956007003784, -0.32762229442596436, -0.3649023175239563, 0.013933656737208366, 0.15116199851036072, 0.2544019818305969, -0.055350977927446365, -0.30189305543899536, 0.40438294410705566, 0.02081317827105522, 0.18399783968925476, -0.2050517201423645 ]	3	William Shakespeare (1564-1616) was born in Stratford-upon-Avon, England. He was the son of John and Mary Shakespeare. William attended his town’s local grammar school at age six and graduated ten years later. When he was eighteen, he married a woman named Anne Hathaway who gave birth to twins, Hamnet and Judith. Hamnet drowned a few years later. It is said that William named his famous play Hamlet after his son and included a drowning scene in his honor. After the loss of his son, William left his family behind and headed for London to write plays. He was a poet and playwright. He wrote many famous plays, including Macbeth, Hamlet, and Romeo and Juliet. His stories were very popular with the English people because some of them were about English kings, like Henry IV. One of the characters from Henry IV was Falstaff, a drunk and crude knight. People liked him so much that William wrote another play using Falstaff, entitled The Merry Wives of Windsor. Shakespeare lived during the Renaissance period, and was one of the most influential playwrights of his time. Hamlet is set in medieval times and relates the story of Hamlet, who is the son of the dead King of Denmark, which appears as a ghost. The ghost appears at midnight and hints to Hamlet and his two friends Horatio and Marcellus about his murder. Hamlets mother, Gertrude, quickly marries Hamlets Uncle Claudius barely before the Kings body is even cold. Hamlet finds out that Claudius poisoned his father while he was sleeping to gain control of the throne. Hamlet confronts his mother about knowing about the murder of his father, and her affair with Claudius. Claudius attempts to kill Hamlet on a vacation voyage to England, by getting Rosncrantz and Guildenstern, Hamlets boyhood friends to carry a letter to the King of England to chop off Hamlets head. Hamlet intercepts the letter, and sends a letter to the King of England, telling him to immediately cut off the heads of the messengers. Hamlet then plots to kill Claudius because He killed my king and whored my mother. Laertes is allowed a duel against Hamlet to revenge his father, Polonius, murder. Halfway into the duel, Claudius toasts the duelers, and drops a poison-coated pearl into the wine as an inducement for Hamlet to finish the drink. However, Gertrude decides to drink it herself. The duel continues and both are wounded by Larertes poisoned dagger. Gertrude falls to the ground and says Claudius has poisoned her. Hamlet stabs Claudius and forces the poisoned wine down his throat. In the end, all of the main characters are murdered. Hamlet is the main character who is the son of the murdered King of Denmark. Hamlet is a round and dynamic character. He is revenging the death of his father, but turns out he kills Polonius thinking it is his evil Uncle Claudius behind a tapestry. In the end, Hamlet goes insane by the ghostly father and the dastardly plot he unravels. He is killed in a duel with Laertes by the poisonous dagger. Claudius is the evil uncle who killed Hamlets father and had an affair with his mother. He marries Gertrude then plots to kill Hamlet. His plot succeeds in the end, but with it comes the death of his wife and himself. I choose Hamlet, (of course the good guy) because of his extreme will to get revenge. I could understand what it would feel like to lose your father and find out that the murder was your mothers new husband. He had to feel love for his mother, but he had to get revenge for his ghostly father. The internal conflict is Hamlets love for his mother and hate for his fathers murderer, Claudius. The conflict was resolved when Claudius accidentally poisoned his mother and killed Claudius to revenge both his fathers and mothers death. The external conflict was when Hamlet accidentally killed Polonius thus driving Ophelia to suicide. The conflict is resolved when Laertes, (the son of Polonius and Ophelias bother) and Hamlet stab each other with the poisoned dagger. The theme of the play is revenge and justice. Throughout the story, each character is further entwined into a web of revenge and deceit. I liked the play because there is a lot of fighting and revengeful plotting throughout it. Many people are killed in this battle of revengeful conflict. If my father were killed, I would vow for revenge just like Hamlet. This book is a classic because it shows how easy people become obsessed with revenge and how it only leads to travesty. Also, the fact that Shakespeare, the most noted play writer, wrote it does not hurt either. The title is fairly self-explanatory, due to the fact that Hamlet is the main character of the play.	1,034	ENGLISH	1
Pilgrimage print – Jacob Cornelisz van Oostsanen date 1518 The Miracle of Amsterdam Amsterdam is sometimes called the ‘Miracle City’. The Dutch capital has not earned this name on account of its permissive image, but because it has been a place of pilgrimage since the Middle Ages. According to tradition, on 15 March 1345, a man lay seriously ill in his house on the Kalverstraat. Thinking he was about to die he called for a priest to administer the last rites, including the Blessed Sacrament. After receiving the host, the man became sick and finally vomited. As was the custom, what he had brought up was thrown on the fire. The next morning the host was discovered undamaged in the ashes. It was put into a box and taken by a priest to the parish church (the present-day Oude Kerk), but on two occasions miraculously made its way back to the house on the Kalverstraat. This was the beginning of the tradition known in Amsterdam as the Micracle Procession, since people had taken it as a sign that they should spread word of what had happened. Some years later a chapel was built on the site of the miracle. The veneration of this mediaeval micracle meant that Amsterdam became an important centre of pilgrimage and people came from far and wide to take part in the large and magnificent Procession. However, in 1578 Amsterdam city council decided to convert to Protestantism. Catholic services were forbidden and Mass was said in clandestine churches. But the tradition of the Miracle was so important to the people of Amsterdam that during the 17th and 18th centuries they managed to perpetuate its annual celebration and veneration on a limited scale. The traditon was continued by a small group in the clandestine church in the Beguinage and individuals walked the route previously taken by the Procession.	<urn:uuid:ddc1e1a0-c864-49a3-bb99-2163503e6119>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.stille-omgang.nl/the-miracle/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00167.warc.gz	en	0.986098	388	3.515625	4	[ 0.5061492323875427, -0.025821363553404808, 0.04192829877138138, 0.09255986660718918, 0.25693410634994507, -0.026074243709445, 0.13515973091125488, 0.21021753549575806, -0.5100743770599365, 0.14151392877101898, -0.3100700378417969, -0.10922955721616745, -0.7938889861106873, 0.2519219219684601, 0.32061049342155457, 0.08542156219482422, -0.19133588671684265, 0.31573382019996643, -0.3728434145450592, 0.15725436806678772, 0.4501120150089264, -0.338419109582901, 0.02551574818789959, -0.1842057853937149, 0.017543207854032516, 0.45737436413764954, 0.5549775958061218, 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-0.3483530580997467, 0.24466001987457275, -0.20326878130435944, -0.4238359034061432, -0.11047983914613724, -0.025641942396759987, 0.32219719886779785, -0.04116305708885193, 0.5304742455482483, -0.10964582115411758, 0.09382417052984238, -0.08622030913829803, 0.530326783657074, 0.47958433628082275, -0.08716237545013428, -0.40410295128822327, -0.031468238681554794, 0.29039397835731506, 0.14967216551303864, -0.18383614718914032, -0.22975337505340576, -0.4267600476741791, 0.1713489592075348, 0.09421012550592422, -0.2982166111469269, 0.4849557876586914, 0.30718034505844116, 0.1759980171918869, 0.14986537396907806 ]	8	Pilgrimage print – Jacob Cornelisz van Oostsanen date 1518 The Miracle of Amsterdam Amsterdam is sometimes called the ‘Miracle City’. The Dutch capital has not earned this name on account of its permissive image, but because it has been a place of pilgrimage since the Middle Ages. According to tradition, on 15 March 1345, a man lay seriously ill in his house on the Kalverstraat. Thinking he was about to die he called for a priest to administer the last rites, including the Blessed Sacrament. After receiving the host, the man became sick and finally vomited. As was the custom, what he had brought up was thrown on the fire. The next morning the host was discovered undamaged in the ashes. It was put into a box and taken by a priest to the parish church (the present-day Oude Kerk), but on two occasions miraculously made its way back to the house on the Kalverstraat. This was the beginning of the tradition known in Amsterdam as the Micracle Procession, since people had taken it as a sign that they should spread word of what had happened. Some years later a chapel was built on the site of the miracle. The veneration of this mediaeval micracle meant that Amsterdam became an important centre of pilgrimage and people came from far and wide to take part in the large and magnificent Procession. However, in 1578 Amsterdam city council decided to convert to Protestantism. Catholic services were forbidden and Mass was said in clandestine churches. But the tradition of the Miracle was so important to the people of Amsterdam that during the 17th and 18th centuries they managed to perpetuate its annual celebration and veneration on a limited scale. The traditon was continued by a small group in the clandestine church in the Beguinage and individuals walked the route previously taken by the Procession.	400	ENGLISH	1
“America will never be destroyed from the outside. If we falter and lose our freedoms, it will be because we destroyed ourselves.” “I remember my mother’s prayers and they have always followed me. They have clung to me all my life.” Abraham Lincoln, 16th President of the United States, is remembered by most today as a hero. In his time, he was so disliked that he received over 10,000 death threats. Abraham Lincoln became President during one of our nation’s most difficult periods. The Southern states wanted to leave the Union over the issue of slavery. Lincoln believed that as one of the few free governments in the world, America must remain united to help the rest of the world. He also believed that slavery was wrong. He didn’t want slavery to be legal in the new states. He thought the new states should be given to poor people to make a better life, not to rich slave owners. These views made him unpopular. Fortunately, Lincoln wasn’t afraid of being disliked. He believed in doing what was right, no matter what. Abraham Lincoln was born in a one-room cabin in Kentucky. His family moved frequently. At one time, he lived in a cabin with only three walls! The family kept a fire burning near the open space to warm the cabin. Lincoln had about one year of schooling but he loved to read the Bible and the few other books he could find. He liked to tell jokes and stories. He was tall, skinny, ugly, and poorly dressed. People liked him in spite of his appearance because he was honest. - Abraham Lincoln was born February 12, 1809 near Hodgenville, Kentucky. - His mother died when he was nine. - Lincoln taught himself law and became a lawyer; later he served in the U.S. House of Representatives. - Several southern states were already seceding (leaving) the Union when Lincoln took office. - Lincoln originally did not believe the Constitution gave the government the right to end slavery; later, he realized that slavery must be abolished (ended) to keep the country together. - The Civil War started in 1861, when southern soldiers shot at Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina. - Lincoln hated war and was saddened by the bloodshed on both sides. He often walked alone at night thinking about the war. - Lincoln married Mary Todd in 1842. They had four children, two of whom died as children. - The Civil War ended in 1865. Abraham Lincoln hoped both sides could forgive and help rebuild the country. He pleaded with the people to be kind to one another. - Abraham Lincoln died on April 15, 1865. He was shot in the back of a head by John Wilkes Boothe while attending a play with Mary. Frequently Asked Questions Question: Was Abraham Lincoln one of the nation’s best presidents? Answer: Abraham Lincoln was an honest, thoughtful man who wanted what was best for the country. He wanted to be a good husband and father too, and would often wrestle with his boys or take them for rides in a wagon down the street. People visited him for hours every day, asking for help or sharing their opinion. His palms were often blistered from shaking hands. He made difficult decisions that made him unpopular. He understood the “big picture” for our country. OF course, he wasn’t perfect. He sometimes made mistakes. What do you think? Was he a good president? Visit the History Channel to learn more about Abraham Lincoln. Cite This Page You may cut-and-paste the below MLA and APA citation examples: MLA Style Citation Declan, Tobin. " Abraham Lincoln Fun Facts for Kids ." Easy Science for Kids, Jan 2020. Web. 23 Jan 2020. < https://easyscienceforkids.com/abraham-lincoln/ >. APA Style Citation Tobin, Declan. (2020). Abraham Lincoln Fun Facts for Kids. Easy Science for Kids. 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If we falter and lose our freedoms, it will be because we destroyed ourselves.” “I remember my mother’s prayers and they have always followed me. They have clung to me all my life.” Abraham Lincoln, 16th President of the United States, is remembered by most today as a hero. In his time, he was so disliked that he received over 10,000 death threats. Abraham Lincoln became President during one of our nation’s most difficult periods. The Southern states wanted to leave the Union over the issue of slavery. Lincoln believed that as one of the few free governments in the world, America must remain united to help the rest of the world. He also believed that slavery was wrong. He didn’t want slavery to be legal in the new states. He thought the new states should be given to poor people to make a better life, not to rich slave owners. These views made him unpopular. Fortunately, Lincoln wasn’t afraid of being disliked. He believed in doing what was right, no matter what. Abraham Lincoln was born in a one-room cabin in Kentucky. His family moved frequently. At one time, he lived in a cabin with only three walls! The family kept a fire burning near the open space to warm the cabin. Lincoln had about one year of schooling but he loved to read the Bible and the few other books he could find. He liked to tell jokes and stories. He was tall, skinny, ugly, and poorly dressed. People liked him in spite of his appearance because he was honest. - Abraham Lincoln was born February 12, 1809 near Hodgenville, Kentucky. - His mother died when he was nine. - Lincoln taught himself law and became a lawyer; later he served in the U.S. House of Representatives. - Several southern states were already seceding (leaving) the Union when Lincoln took office. - Lincoln originally did not believe the Constitution gave the government the right to end slavery; later, he realized that slavery must be abolished (ended) to keep the country together. - The Civil War started in 1861, when southern soldiers shot at Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina. - Lincoln hated war and was saddened by the bloodshed on both sides. He often walked alone at night thinking about the war. - Lincoln married Mary Todd in 1842. They had four children, two of whom died as children. - The Civil War ended in 1865. Abraham Lincoln hoped both sides could forgive and help rebuild the country. He pleaded with the people to be kind to one another. - Abraham Lincoln died on April 15, 1865. He was shot in the back of a head by John Wilkes Boothe while attending a play with Mary. Frequently Asked Questions Question: Was Abraham Lincoln one of the nation’s best presidents? Answer: Abraham Lincoln was an honest, thoughtful man who wanted what was best for the country. He wanted to be a good husband and father too, and would often wrestle with his boys or take them for rides in a wagon down the street. People visited him for hours every day, asking for help or sharing their opinion. His palms were often blistered from shaking hands. He made difficult decisions that made him unpopular. He understood the “big picture” for our country. OF course, he wasn’t perfect. He sometimes made mistakes. What do you think? Was he a good president? Visit the History Channel to learn more about Abraham Lincoln. Cite This Page You may cut-and-paste the below MLA and APA citation examples: MLA Style Citation Declan, Tobin. " Abraham Lincoln Fun Facts for Kids ." Easy Science for Kids, Jan 2020. Web. 23 Jan 2020. < https://easyscienceforkids.com/abraham-lincoln/ >. APA Style Citation Tobin, Declan. (2020). Abraham Lincoln Fun Facts for Kids. Easy Science for Kids. Retrieved from https://easyscienceforkids.com/abraham-lincoln/ Sponsored Links :	865	ENGLISH	1
For thousands of years Jesus Christ has been imagined as a fair skinned man with blue eyes, long dark hair and a beard. But this could actually be very different to what the son of God really looks like, an expert has sensationally revealed. Thousands of paintings and sculptures over the centuries have similarly depicted what the Messiah looked like. Some have dared to show a completely different interpretation of the son of God, but been waved away in favour of the popular long haired and bearded portrayal. Only a professor has stepped forward to reveal Jesus may not be how we imagined at all. Joan Taylor, a Professor of Christian Origins and Second Temple Judaism at King’s College London, reckons Jesus could have had short hair and darker skin. “It is worth emphasising that images of Jesus over time give us clues on how Jesus was imagined in different environments, but say absolutely nothing about what he really looked like. “Our images of Jesus were largely created in the Byzantine era (4th-6th centuries). Byzantine images of Jesus were based on the image of a Graeco-Roman deity, for example the famous statue of Olympian Zeus by Phidias in the 4th century BCE.” In her piece, Professor Taylor describes Jesus as having a beard, saying: “I think he would have had one, simply because he did not go to barbers.” Summing up how she thinks Jesus looked, and which painting she thinks is the most accurate, Professor Taylor writes: “And what about Jesus’s face? In the mummy portraits, the people were Greek-Egyptian, but there was a large Jewish population also in Egypt and some ethnic mixing. Their faces, so realistic, are the closest we have to photographs of the people of Jesus’s own time and place.	<urn:uuid:aef302c3-3225-44b4-a43e-775bd3ed50d8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://sunnyfmgh.com/2019/12/31/jesus-christs-face-actually-looked-like-this-according-to-expert/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00231.warc.gz	en	0.982366	379	3.375	3	[ 0.057902511209249496, 0.5017897486686707, 0.3114222288131714, 0.12767188251018524, -0.13412994146347046, 0.518094003200531, -0.004378813784569502, 0.008601555600762367, 0.08460687100887299, 0.11583133041858673, -0.015766765922307968, -0.32400786876678467, 0.0016395834973081946, 0.14729057252407074, 0.16133815050125122, 0.07436332106590271, -0.24863600730895996, 0.33506113290786743, -0.8077678680419922, 0.014667927287518978, 0.6284234523773193, -0.13286468386650085, -0.028440088033676147, -0.9633025527000427, 0.044008128345012665, -0.0035909635480493307, 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But this could actually be very different to what the son of God really looks like, an expert has sensationally revealed. Thousands of paintings and sculptures over the centuries have similarly depicted what the Messiah looked like. Some have dared to show a completely different interpretation of the son of God, but been waved away in favour of the popular long haired and bearded portrayal. Only a professor has stepped forward to reveal Jesus may not be how we imagined at all. Joan Taylor, a Professor of Christian Origins and Second Temple Judaism at King’s College London, reckons Jesus could have had short hair and darker skin. “It is worth emphasising that images of Jesus over time give us clues on how Jesus was imagined in different environments, but say absolutely nothing about what he really looked like. “Our images of Jesus were largely created in the Byzantine era (4th-6th centuries). Byzantine images of Jesus were based on the image of a Graeco-Roman deity, for example the famous statue of Olympian Zeus by Phidias in the 4th century BCE.” In her piece, Professor Taylor describes Jesus as having a beard, saying: “I think he would have had one, simply because he did not go to barbers.” Summing up how she thinks Jesus looked, and which painting she thinks is the most accurate, Professor Taylor writes: “And what about Jesus’s face? In the mummy portraits, the people were Greek-Egyptian, but there was a large Jewish population also in Egypt and some ethnic mixing. Their faces, so realistic, are the closest we have to photographs of the people of Jesus’s own time and place.	358	ENGLISH	1
Реферат на тему American Transcendentalism Essay Research Paper TranscendentalismHenry David American Transcendentalism Essay, Research Paper Henry David Thoreau and his friendship with Ralph Waldo Emerson helped form the Transcendental movement which, in turn, changed America in the nineteenth century with lasting effects into today s society. The Transcendental period in the nineteenth century was truly unique. It is not considered a religion, a philosophy, or a literary theory, although it has elements of all three of those items. Ralph Waldo Emerson, the father of Transcendentalism, himself often times erred to Transcendentalism as idealism. While Emerson was considered Transcendentalism s father, Henry David Thoreau was one of the very few people that actually lived out, to the fullest extent, the ideas and teachings of Emerson. There were many key figures that made the transcendental movement work, but one of the more important was Henry David Thoreau. Thoreau was born in 1817, in Concord, Massachusetts as David Henry Thoreau, his christened name. His father, John, was a shopkeeper in Concord before he moved the family to Boston in search for more business opportunities. In 1823, John moved his family back to Concord where he established financial stability as a pencil manufacturer. Prior his father s success in pencil manufacturing, Henry lived his childhood in poverty. His mother, Cynthia, would take in boarders to make ends meet. Thoreau s older siblings were both schoolteachers. Helen and John Jr. contributed funds to help Henry pay his tuition at Harvard, just as their grandfather had done. Henry s total expenses at Harvard were about $179 a year. At Harvard, a heavy emphasis was placed on classic works. Henry studied Latin and Greek grammar or composition for three of his four years. He also took courses in mathematics, English, history, and mental, natural, and intellectual philosophy. Modern languages were voluntary, and Thoreau chose to take Italian, French, German, and Spanish. Thoreau never stood higher than the middle of his class. Henry was never happy about the teaching methods used at Harvard, but he did appreciate and take advantage of the lifelong rights to the library at Harvard for which his degree qualified him. He read a great deal of metaphysical poets such as Donne, Vaughan and other British authors such as Carlye. Despite his dislike for the teaching style of Harvard professors, Henry did meet naturalist Louis Agassiz and a rhetorics professor Edward Tyrel Channing, both of which were great influences on the young Henry. After his graduation from Harvard, Henry returned home in 1837 and took up the profession of teaching. He started out at a district school and he later taught at a school he opened with his brother John Jr. At their school, Henry and John Jr. used the progressive educational tactics of Amos Bronson Alcott. While teaching with his brother, Henry began writing. In 1841, Henry and John Jr. had to close down their school, but not all bad came from this event. After the closing of the school, Henry was offered by the Emerson family to live with them and earn his keep as a handyman while he concentrated on his writing. From the time Henry graduated from Harvard, he knew himself to be an accomplished writer. At Harvard, he was a chronic reader of Hindu Scripture and this helped form the habit of keeping extensive journals. He had been writing poetry even earlier than that. He published essays and reviews, but due to the harsh criticism from James Russell Lowell, an influential critic, Henry s success was limited and he was forced to try to earn a living by means other than writing. Henry was regarded as a second-rate imitator of Ralph Waldo Emerson. Henry returned home to the family business of pencil manufacturing for a steady income and stability. Henry quickly became an asset to the family business when used his engineering talent to improve their product. He invented a machine that ground the plumbago for the leads into a very fine powder and developed a combination of the finely ground plumbago and clay that resulted in a pencil that produced a smooth, regular line. He also improved the method of assembling the casing and the lead. Henry s pencils were the first produced in America that equaled those made by the German company, Faber, whose pencils set the standard for quality. In the 1850s, when the electrotyping process of printing began to be used widely, the Henry shifted from pencil-making to supplying large quantities of their finely ground plumbago to printing companies. Henry continued to run the family company after his fathers death in 1859. When he was questioned about trying to improve his pencil production, he replied, Why should I? I would not do again what I have done once. Henry also earned money through his own business as a surveyor. Henry taught himself to survey; he had, as Ralph Waldo Emerson noted in his eulogy, a natural skill for mensuration, and he was very good at the work. In addition to working for the town of Concord, he surveyed house and wood lots around Concord for landowners who were having property assessed and those wanting to settle boundary disputes with their neighbors. In 1859, he was hired by a group of farmers who filed suit against the owners of the Billerica Dam, claiming that the dam raised the water level in the river and destroyed the farmers meadowlands. To help support the claim, Thoreau collected evidence from many sources. He interviewed people with long experience of the river, took extensive measurements of the water level at various points along its course, and inspected all of the rivers bridges. He recorded his findings in a large chart and transferred appropriate information to an existing survey of the river that he had traced. The dispute was a bitter one, arousing ill-feeling in the town: Thoreau reported in his journal that one of those he interviewed testified in court that the river was dammed at both ends and cursed in the middle. He also collected specimens for Louis Agassiz, who had brought the study of natural history to Harvard after Thoreau graduated, but he was not compensated for this work. He lectured several times a year at lyceums and private homes from Maine to New Jersey. These lectures were important in his process of composition. Most of the ideas and themes in his essays and books were first presented to the public in lectures, but they were not fruitful. In 1847, responding to a request from the secretary of his Harvard class, he described his various forms employment: I am a Schoolmastera Private Tutor, a Surveyora Gardener, a Farmera Painter, I mean a House Painter, a Carpenter, a Mason, a Day-Laborer, a Pencil-Maker, a Glass-paper Maker, a Writer, and sometimes a Poetaster. Though Henry always seemed to find himself with another job, he was never considered wealthy; however, Emerson did consider him rich saying, He chose to be rich by making his wants few, and supplying them himself. Thoreau lived his life on the bare essentials. He grew his own food including beans, potatoes, peas, and turnips. He also ate wild berries, apples, an occasional fish if he had the opportunity to catch one, and he even cooked a woodchuck that he killed after finding it rummaging through his bean-field. His extremely naturalist personality led him to arrange his time so that he only had to work in small amounts of time and be able to survive on that income so he had more time for to broaden his life through reading, thinking, walking, observing, and writing. Thoreau was a devoted, self-taught naturalist. He disciplined himself to observe the natural phenomena around Concord. He did this systematically and recorded his observations almost every day in his Journal. The Journal contains his initial formulations of ideas and descriptions that reoccur in his lectures, essays, and books; early versions of passages that reached final form in Walden can be in the Journal as early as 1846 (Johnson 2). Thoreau s descriptions and interpretations of nature enriched all of his work; even his essays and lectures on political issues. His use of images and comparisons based on his studies of animal behavior, life cycles of plants, and the events of changing seasons is best displayed in his best-known book, Walden. Thoreau wrote this book during his pilgrimage at Walden Pond on Emerson s property. He lived in a little shanty, which he had built himself. He began his stay in limited isolation on July 4, 1845 as a tribute to his late brother John Jr. The fact that his stay at Walden started on Independence Day was no coincidence. It is symbolic of his escape from the judging ways of the Concord society. In Walden, Thoreau showcases his simple, self-sufficient way of life in order to free himself from the self-imposed social and financial constraints. He also stresses that everyone should create a more intimate relationship between human beings and nature as a remedy to the deadening influence of an increasingly industrialized society (Johnson 3). Thoreau said of his stay at Walden, I went to the woods because I wished to live deliberately, to front only the essential facts of life, and see if I could not learn what it had to teach, and not, when I came to die, discover that I had not lived. When neighbors talked of emulating his lifestyle, he was dismayed rather than flattered. I would not have any one adopt my mode of living on any account; for, besides that before he has fairly learned it I may have found another for myself, I desire that there may be as many different persons in the world as possible; but I would have each one be very caul to find out and pursue in his own way, and not his fathers, or his mothers, or his neighbors instead. The youth my build or plant or sail, only let him not be hindered from that which he tells me he would like to do. It is by a mathematical point only that we are wise, as the sailor or the fugitive slave keeps the polestar in his eye; but that is sufficient guidance for all our life. We may not arrive at our port within a calculable period, but we preserve the true course, said Thoreau of his neighbors in Walden. Comments such as these caused much of his community to look down upon his lifestyle and works. He was even considered as a hermit by many. Walden concludes in the springtime, the time of both spiritual and natural rebirth. When he left Walden in 1847, it was not because the experiment had failed or because he had tired of the simple life, but rather because, for Thoreau, it had been a completely fulfilling success, and it was now time to move on: I left the woods for as good a reason as I went there. Perhaps it seemed to me that I had several more lives to live, and could not spare any more time for that one, he wrote in the conclusion of Walden. All of Thoreau s writing, except his poetry, is expository. He wrote no fiction whatsoever and much of his work is built on the blueprints of his journeys and expeditions. A Week on the Concord and Merrimack, The Maine Woods, Cape Cod, and the essays A Winter Walk, A Walk to Wachusett, and An Excursion to Canada, are all structured as traditional travel narratives (Johnson 3). A great majority of Thoreau s published books and essays were first presented as lectures. His imagery takes the reader along on his experiences to new places, sharing the meditations it inspires, and finally returning the reader to Concord with a deeper understanding of both native and foreign places and of the journeying self. Thoreau s other essays take his readers on different kinds of journeys; through the foliage of autumn as in Autumnal Tints, and through the cultivated and wild orchards of history in Wild Apples, and through the life-cycle of a plot of land as one species of tree gives way to another in The Succession of Forest Trees (Johnson 4). Thoreau focused mainly on two subjects in all of his works. Primarily his focus was on nature, and secondly on the question of how people should live. He wrote a complete series of essays that dealt with the issues of personal exploration and resurrection. A new wave of orm movements swept across New England in the 1830 s and 1840 s involving issues ranging from women s rights temperance, from education to religion, from diet to sex. Thoreau was not a supporter of these orms. The only movement Thoreau could find an alliance with was abolitionism. But idealist as he was, standing for abolition of slavery, abolition of tariffs, almost for abolition of government, stated Emerson of Thoreaus abolitionist way in his essay Thoreau. Thoreau expressed his views and opinions on political issues the best way he could, through his writing. His most famous essay is Civil Disobedience, published in 1849 as Resistance to Civil Government. The incident that provoked Thoreau to write this essay took place in July of 1846, while he was still living on Emerson s property at Walden Pond. He went into town to have a pair of shoes repaired, but he was arrested upon his entrance of the town for not paying a poll tax assessed to every voter. He spent the night in jail and was released the day after once, what is believed to be his aunt, paid the amount in back-taxes he owed. Already against slavery and the fact that his tax dollars were going to be used to support the Spanish-American War, which he was totally against, Thoreau was inspired to write this essay. This essay has had lasting effects on other passive resistance leaders like Mahandas Gandhi, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., Leo Tolstoy, Jack Kerouac, and Allen Ginsberg. John F. Kennedy Jr. was also impacted by this political piece. Thoreau wrote this piece to spread his feelings we should governed more by nature than government itself. He felt that the government should only take his money if he agreed with what they were going to do with it. Thoreau also explored the individual s right to dissent from a government s policies in accordance with his or her own conscience in his later political essays which include: Slavery in Massachusetts, A Plea for Captain John Brown, and Life without Principle (Johnson 4). Thoreau led a life with a history of sub-par health. He came down with tuberculosis in 1860. It claimed his life on May 6, 1862. Throughout the nineteenth century, Thoreau was considered as a doscure, a second-rate imitator of Emerson, however, critics of the twentieth century have placed Thoreau with Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Herman Melville as the best authors of the nineteenth century. He is even ranked among the greatest figures in American literature. His reputation didnt come full-circle until the 1930s and even more so in the 1940s when F.O. Matthiessen studied the imagery in Walden and encouraged more attention to his style. In the years prior to his death, he and Emerson gradually grew apart. Emerson regarded a large portion of Thoreaus life a waste, but he still considered him an excellent writer and a sincere friend. Ralph Waldo Emerson was the most crucial of all the transcendentalists. He is considered the father of Transcendentalism. Emerson was born on May 25, 1803 in Boston, Massachusetts. His father, William, was a minister of a liberal Congregationalist parish. Emerson was raised by his father to become a Puritan minister in New England. William Emerson died when Ralph was only 8 years old, leaving the family in financial straits. He had four brothers for which his mother had to care for. His mother still found ways to provide for the five boys to get the education that was a family tradition. All but one of the brothers graduated from Harvard College. Emerson himself entered Harvard at the age of fourteen, while living in the Presidents house, and his board was paid by waiting on s in the commons. He was always among the brightest in his class but wasn t very talkative. He often read books not prescribed by his professors. He won prizes in English composition, and at his graduation, in 1821, delivered the poem for the class. After leaving Harvard, Emerson taught for several years, at first in a suburban school for girls, kept by his brother William, where the young instructor wasn t pleased with his teaching colleagues. It was at this time that he composed one of his most widely known poems, Good-bye, proud world! Im going home (Emerson: A Students History 12). Emerson was also employed in a characteristic New England academy in the country near Lowell. His manner in the schoolroom was impressive; his self-control was perfect, he never punished except with words. His last experience as a schoolmaster was in Cambridge. In 1823, Emerson began studying for the ministry. Descended from a long line of ministers, deeply spiritual in nature and equally a passionate seeker after truth, full of ideals of helpfulness and philanthropy, this was the natural course; but his activities in this profession were brief. He was ordained in 1829 as associate pastor of the Second Church in Boston, the historic Old North, which in the preceding century had flourished for sixty years under the ministry of the Mathers, father and son. It was now one of the important pulpits of Unitarianism. The young minister, who in a few months became the sole incumbent, took an active interest in public affairs; he was a member of the school board and was chosen chaplain of the State Senate. He invited anti-slavery lecturers into his pulpit and helped philanthropists of all denominations in their work. Three months after his ordination, however, Emerson found himself fettered even by the liberal doctrines of the Unitarians; and in 1832, disapproving the continuance of the Lords Supper as a permanent rite, he presented his scruples in a sermon to his parishioners. His views not receiving their support, he quietly withdrew from the church (Emerson: A Students History 17). Emerson s young wife, Ellen, a mere girl of seventeen when Emerson married her soon after his ordination, died in 1831. The strain of this mourning, combined with that of his separation from his church, affected his own health, and on Christmas Day, 1832, Emerson, urged by his friends to take a sea voyage, sailed from Boston on a small vessel bound for the Mediterranean. He visited Italy, France, and England; and apparently found his greatest satisfaction in the opportunity thus afforded to meet the noted men whom he had long wished to see. It was on this trip that inspired Emerson to become a naturalist after viewing a botanical exhibition in Paris (Emerson: A Students History 19). In 1834, Ralph Waldo Emerson became a resident of Concord. For a year he lived with his mother in the old-fashioned gambrel-roofed house, built as a parsonage for his grandfather, who in his time had served the Concord church. It was this house which subsequently came to be occupied by the novelist Hawthorne, and was given fame in the title of his Mosses from an Old Manse. In 1835, Emerson was married to Miss Lidian Jackson, of Plymouth, and settled in the house, then on the edge of the town. There was, too, a circle of intimate friends about him, some, like Bronson Alcott and Margaret Fuller, attracted thither by the presence of one generally recognized as the ablest prophet of transcendentalism. The young and talented Thoreau, a disciple, although a very independent one, early engaged his interest. In 1842, Hawthorne came to Concord, and for five years dwelt in the Old Manse. Occasionally, too, there appeared fantastic dreamers with queer schemes of social ormation in their heads who sought out Emerson in his retreat as if to consult the oracle at some sacred shrine. Altogether, the little New England town became closely identified with that strong intellectual movement which Emerson, more than any other American writer had inspired (Emerson: A Students History 21). In 1840, Emerson published the Dial, a magazine for which he used to circulate not only his works, but also his entire group of transcendentalist followers. The Dial was conceived as a medium for the freest expression of thought on the questions which interest earnest minds in every community; (Emerson: A Students History 23). Emersons poetry, as well as his prose works, from the time period of the Dial shows a steady decline in his idealism. Society and Solitude, published in 1870, marked the beginning of Emersons decline as an essayist (Emerson: A Students History 24). Emerson died in Concord on April 27, 1882, at age 78 and was buried in Sleepy Hollow. Transcendentalism was an influential philosophy that surfaced in the late eighteenth century and lasted well into the nineteenth century. Many experts feel it is incorrect to er to this movement as a philosophy because it was much more than just a philosophy. It was also a religious, literary, theological and social movement (American Transcendentalism 2). The first transcendentalist ideas and chief source for its growth later on, was the Critique of Pure Reason, written by the German philosopher Immanuel Kant in 1781. According to Emersons understanding of Kant, Transcendentalism becomes a union of solipsism, under which the only verifiable reality is thought to be the self, and materialism, under which the only verifiable reality is the quantifiable external world of objects and sense data (American Transcendentalism 4.) It was this piece that inspired Emerson to write Nature, the essay that articulates the true philosophical underpinnings of the movement. It was Kant s work that made Emerson realize that the people and churches of the nineteenth century had become too materialistic. Emerson said of society in his essay, The Transcendentalist; As thinkers, mankind have divided into two sects, Materialists and Idealists; the first class founding on experience, the second on consciousness (American Transcendentalism 4). Transcendentalism originated as a radical religious movement opposed to the rationalist, conservative institution that Unitarianism had become. Ironically, a great deal of the movement s early followers were or had been Unitarian ministers, including Emerson who came from a long line of Unitarian ministers. The early transcendentalists had felt Unitarianism had become too demanding both spiritually and emotionally. The foregoing generations beheld God and nature face to face, we through their eyes. Why should not we also enjoy an original relation to the universe, questioned Emerson (American Transcendentalism 5). He wanted people to be open-minded and idealistic. He believed that people should find inspiration and ecstasy in nature and use that as the way to show tribute and respect to God. Emerson placed extreme emphasis on idealism, and often erred to transcendentalism as idealism, What is popularly called Transcendentalism among us, is Idealism; Idealism as it appears in 1842, he wrote in The Transcendentalist, (American Transcendentalism 5). The emphasis on idealism came about due to the fact that too many people found their knowledge through experience and observation, or empiricism as Unitarianism had taught. Transcendentalism taught that reality existed only in the spiritual world, and that what a person observed n the physical world was only the appearances, or impermanent lections of the spiritual world. They explained that people learned about the physical world by using empiricism, but to understand the spiritual world and reality, one had to use another kind of power called reason. The transcendentalists defined reason as the independent and intuitive capacity to know what is absolutely true (Clendenning 295). Emerson still believed the physical world served humanity by providing useful goods and by making human beings aware of beauty. Clendenning said, Emerson wanted people to learn as much as they possibly through experience and observation as well, but this was secondary to the truths seen through reason. The transcendentalists believed that human beings had to find truth within themselves theore, they greatly stressed self-reliance and individuality. They claimed society was a necessary evil. They argued that to learn all that is right, a person must ignore custom and social codes and rely on reason. They wanted people to use intuition more than traditional beliefs, (295). The transcendentalists assumed a universe divided into two essential parts, the soul and nature. Emerson defined the soul by defining nature: all that is separated from us, all which Philosophy distinguishes as the NOT ME, that is, both nature and art, all other men and my own body, must be ranked under this name, NATURE, (American Transcendentalism 6). A fundamental Transcendentalist principle was the belief in the reliability of the human conscience. This idea was based upon the conviction of the immanence, or indwelling, of God in the soul of the individual. We see God around us because He dwells within us, wrote William Ellery Channing in 1828; the beauty and glory of God s works are revealed to the mind by a light beaming from itself (Clendenning 295). The Transcendentalism wave died out in the 1860s, but it has had lasting effects until today. 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The Transcendental period in the nineteenth century was truly unique. It is not considered a religion, a philosophy, or a literary theory, although it has elements of all three of those items. Ralph Waldo Emerson, the father of Transcendentalism, himself often times erred to Transcendentalism as idealism. While Emerson was considered Transcendentalism s father, Henry David Thoreau was one of the very few people that actually lived out, to the fullest extent, the ideas and teachings of Emerson. There were many key figures that made the transcendental movement work, but one of the more important was Henry David Thoreau. Thoreau was born in 1817, in Concord, Massachusetts as David Henry Thoreau, his christened name. His father, John, was a shopkeeper in Concord before he moved the family to Boston in search for more business opportunities. In 1823, John moved his family back to Concord where he established financial stability as a pencil manufacturer. Prior his father s success in pencil manufacturing, Henry lived his childhood in poverty. His mother, Cynthia, would take in boarders to make ends meet. Thoreau s older siblings were both schoolteachers. Helen and John Jr. contributed funds to help Henry pay his tuition at Harvard, just as their grandfather had done. Henry s total expenses at Harvard were about $179 a year. At Harvard, a heavy emphasis was placed on classic works. Henry studied Latin and Greek grammar or composition for three of his four years. He also took courses in mathematics, English, history, and mental, natural, and intellectual philosophy. Modern languages were voluntary, and Thoreau chose to take Italian, French, German, and Spanish. Thoreau never stood higher than the middle of his class. Henry was never happy about the teaching methods used at Harvard, but he did appreciate and take advantage of the lifelong rights to the library at Harvard for which his degree qualified him. He read a great deal of metaphysical poets such as Donne, Vaughan and other British authors such as Carlye. Despite his dislike for the teaching style of Harvard professors, Henry did meet naturalist Louis Agassiz and a rhetorics professor Edward Tyrel Channing, both of which were great influences on the young Henry. After his graduation from Harvard, Henry returned home in 1837 and took up the profession of teaching. He started out at a district school and he later taught at a school he opened with his brother John Jr. At their school, Henry and John Jr. used the progressive educational tactics of Amos Bronson Alcott. While teaching with his brother, Henry began writing. In 1841, Henry and John Jr. had to close down their school, but not all bad came from this event. After the closing of the school, Henry was offered by the Emerson family to live with them and earn his keep as a handyman while he concentrated on his writing. From the time Henry graduated from Harvard, he knew himself to be an accomplished writer. At Harvard, he was a chronic reader of Hindu Scripture and this helped form the habit of keeping extensive journals. He had been writing poetry even earlier than that. He published essays and reviews, but due to the harsh criticism from James Russell Lowell, an influential critic, Henry s success was limited and he was forced to try to earn a living by means other than writing. Henry was regarded as a second-rate imitator of Ralph Waldo Emerson. Henry returned home to the family business of pencil manufacturing for a steady income and stability. Henry quickly became an asset to the family business when used his engineering talent to improve their product. He invented a machine that ground the plumbago for the leads into a very fine powder and developed a combination of the finely ground plumbago and clay that resulted in a pencil that produced a smooth, regular line. He also improved the method of assembling the casing and the lead. Henry s pencils were the first produced in America that equaled those made by the German company, Faber, whose pencils set the standard for quality. In the 1850s, when the electrotyping process of printing began to be used widely, the Henry shifted from pencil-making to supplying large quantities of their finely ground plumbago to printing companies. Henry continued to run the family company after his fathers death in 1859. When he was questioned about trying to improve his pencil production, he replied, Why should I? I would not do again what I have done once. Henry also earned money through his own business as a surveyor. Henry taught himself to survey; he had, as Ralph Waldo Emerson noted in his eulogy, a natural skill for mensuration, and he was very good at the work. In addition to working for the town of Concord, he surveyed house and wood lots around Concord for landowners who were having property assessed and those wanting to settle boundary disputes with their neighbors. In 1859, he was hired by a group of farmers who filed suit against the owners of the Billerica Dam, claiming that the dam raised the water level in the river and destroyed the farmers meadowlands. To help support the claim, Thoreau collected evidence from many sources. He interviewed people with long experience of the river, took extensive measurements of the water level at various points along its course, and inspected all of the rivers bridges. He recorded his findings in a large chart and transferred appropriate information to an existing survey of the river that he had traced. The dispute was a bitter one, arousing ill-feeling in the town: Thoreau reported in his journal that one of those he interviewed testified in court that the river was dammed at both ends and cursed in the middle. He also collected specimens for Louis Agassiz, who had brought the study of natural history to Harvard after Thoreau graduated, but he was not compensated for this work. He lectured several times a year at lyceums and private homes from Maine to New Jersey. These lectures were important in his process of composition. Most of the ideas and themes in his essays and books were first presented to the public in lectures, but they were not fruitful. In 1847, responding to a request from the secretary of his Harvard class, he described his various forms employment: I am a Schoolmastera Private Tutor, a Surveyora Gardener, a Farmera Painter, I mean a House Painter, a Carpenter, a Mason, a Day-Laborer, a Pencil-Maker, a Glass-paper Maker, a Writer, and sometimes a Poetaster. Though Henry always seemed to find himself with another job, he was never considered wealthy; however, Emerson did consider him rich saying, He chose to be rich by making his wants few, and supplying them himself. Thoreau lived his life on the bare essentials. He grew his own food including beans, potatoes, peas, and turnips. He also ate wild berries, apples, an occasional fish if he had the opportunity to catch one, and he even cooked a woodchuck that he killed after finding it rummaging through his bean-field. His extremely naturalist personality led him to arrange his time so that he only had to work in small amounts of time and be able to survive on that income so he had more time for to broaden his life through reading, thinking, walking, observing, and writing. Thoreau was a devoted, self-taught naturalist. He disciplined himself to observe the natural phenomena around Concord. He did this systematically and recorded his observations almost every day in his Journal. The Journal contains his initial formulations of ideas and descriptions that reoccur in his lectures, essays, and books; early versions of passages that reached final form in Walden can be in the Journal as early as 1846 (Johnson 2). Thoreau s descriptions and interpretations of nature enriched all of his work; even his essays and lectures on political issues. His use of images and comparisons based on his studies of animal behavior, life cycles of plants, and the events of changing seasons is best displayed in his best-known book, Walden. Thoreau wrote this book during his pilgrimage at Walden Pond on Emerson s property. He lived in a little shanty, which he had built himself. He began his stay in limited isolation on July 4, 1845 as a tribute to his late brother John Jr. The fact that his stay at Walden started on Independence Day was no coincidence. It is symbolic of his escape from the judging ways of the Concord society. In Walden, Thoreau showcases his simple, self-sufficient way of life in order to free himself from the self-imposed social and financial constraints. He also stresses that everyone should create a more intimate relationship between human beings and nature as a remedy to the deadening influence of an increasingly industrialized society (Johnson 3). Thoreau said of his stay at Walden, I went to the woods because I wished to live deliberately, to front only the essential facts of life, and see if I could not learn what it had to teach, and not, when I came to die, discover that I had not lived. When neighbors talked of emulating his lifestyle, he was dismayed rather than flattered. I would not have any one adopt my mode of living on any account; for, besides that before he has fairly learned it I may have found another for myself, I desire that there may be as many different persons in the world as possible; but I would have each one be very caul to find out and pursue in his own way, and not his fathers, or his mothers, or his neighbors instead. The youth my build or plant or sail, only let him not be hindered from that which he tells me he would like to do. It is by a mathematical point only that we are wise, as the sailor or the fugitive slave keeps the polestar in his eye; but that is sufficient guidance for all our life. We may not arrive at our port within a calculable period, but we preserve the true course, said Thoreau of his neighbors in Walden. Comments such as these caused much of his community to look down upon his lifestyle and works. He was even considered as a hermit by many. Walden concludes in the springtime, the time of both spiritual and natural rebirth. When he left Walden in 1847, it was not because the experiment had failed or because he had tired of the simple life, but rather because, for Thoreau, it had been a completely fulfilling success, and it was now time to move on: I left the woods for as good a reason as I went there. Perhaps it seemed to me that I had several more lives to live, and could not spare any more time for that one, he wrote in the conclusion of Walden. All of Thoreau s writing, except his poetry, is expository. He wrote no fiction whatsoever and much of his work is built on the blueprints of his journeys and expeditions. A Week on the Concord and Merrimack, The Maine Woods, Cape Cod, and the essays A Winter Walk, A Walk to Wachusett, and An Excursion to Canada, are all structured as traditional travel narratives (Johnson 3). A great majority of Thoreau s published books and essays were first presented as lectures. His imagery takes the reader along on his experiences to new places, sharing the meditations it inspires, and finally returning the reader to Concord with a deeper understanding of both native and foreign places and of the journeying self. Thoreau s other essays take his readers on different kinds of journeys; through the foliage of autumn as in Autumnal Tints, and through the cultivated and wild orchards of history in Wild Apples, and through the life-cycle of a plot of land as one species of tree gives way to another in The Succession of Forest Trees (Johnson 4). Thoreau focused mainly on two subjects in all of his works. Primarily his focus was on nature, and secondly on the question of how people should live. He wrote a complete series of essays that dealt with the issues of personal exploration and resurrection. A new wave of orm movements swept across New England in the 1830 s and 1840 s involving issues ranging from women s rights temperance, from education to religion, from diet to sex. Thoreau was not a supporter of these orms. The only movement Thoreau could find an alliance with was abolitionism. But idealist as he was, standing for abolition of slavery, abolition of tariffs, almost for abolition of government, stated Emerson of Thoreaus abolitionist way in his essay Thoreau. Thoreau expressed his views and opinions on political issues the best way he could, through his writing. His most famous essay is Civil Disobedience, published in 1849 as Resistance to Civil Government. The incident that provoked Thoreau to write this essay took place in July of 1846, while he was still living on Emerson s property at Walden Pond. He went into town to have a pair of shoes repaired, but he was arrested upon his entrance of the town for not paying a poll tax assessed to every voter. He spent the night in jail and was released the day after once, what is believed to be his aunt, paid the amount in back-taxes he owed. Already against slavery and the fact that his tax dollars were going to be used to support the Spanish-American War, which he was totally against, Thoreau was inspired to write this essay. This essay has had lasting effects on other passive resistance leaders like Mahandas Gandhi, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., Leo Tolstoy, Jack Kerouac, and Allen Ginsberg. John F. Kennedy Jr. was also impacted by this political piece. Thoreau wrote this piece to spread his feelings we should governed more by nature than government itself. He felt that the government should only take his money if he agreed with what they were going to do with it. Thoreau also explored the individual s right to dissent from a government s policies in accordance with his or her own conscience in his later political essays which include: Slavery in Massachusetts, A Plea for Captain John Brown, and Life without Principle (Johnson 4). Thoreau led a life with a history of sub-par health. He came down with tuberculosis in 1860. It claimed his life on May 6, 1862. Throughout the nineteenth century, Thoreau was considered as a doscure, a second-rate imitator of Emerson, however, critics of the twentieth century have placed Thoreau with Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Herman Melville as the best authors of the nineteenth century. He is even ranked among the greatest figures in American literature. His reputation didnt come full-circle until the 1930s and even more so in the 1940s when F.O. Matthiessen studied the imagery in Walden and encouraged more attention to his style. In the years prior to his death, he and Emerson gradually grew apart. Emerson regarded a large portion of Thoreaus life a waste, but he still considered him an excellent writer and a sincere friend. Ralph Waldo Emerson was the most crucial of all the transcendentalists. He is considered the father of Transcendentalism. Emerson was born on May 25, 1803 in Boston, Massachusetts. His father, William, was a minister of a liberal Congregationalist parish. Emerson was raised by his father to become a Puritan minister in New England. William Emerson died when Ralph was only 8 years old, leaving the family in financial straits. He had four brothers for which his mother had to care for. His mother still found ways to provide for the five boys to get the education that was a family tradition. All but one of the brothers graduated from Harvard College. Emerson himself entered Harvard at the age of fourteen, while living in the Presidents house, and his board was paid by waiting on s in the commons. He was always among the brightest in his class but wasn t very talkative. He often read books not prescribed by his professors. He won prizes in English composition, and at his graduation, in 1821, delivered the poem for the class. After leaving Harvard, Emerson taught for several years, at first in a suburban school for girls, kept by his brother William, where the young instructor wasn t pleased with his teaching colleagues. It was at this time that he composed one of his most widely known poems, Good-bye, proud world! Im going home (Emerson: A Students History 12). Emerson was also employed in a characteristic New England academy in the country near Lowell. His manner in the schoolroom was impressive; his self-control was perfect, he never punished except with words. His last experience as a schoolmaster was in Cambridge. In 1823, Emerson began studying for the ministry. Descended from a long line of ministers, deeply spiritual in nature and equally a passionate seeker after truth, full of ideals of helpfulness and philanthropy, this was the natural course; but his activities in this profession were brief. He was ordained in 1829 as associate pastor of the Second Church in Boston, the historic Old North, which in the preceding century had flourished for sixty years under the ministry of the Mathers, father and son. It was now one of the important pulpits of Unitarianism. The young minister, who in a few months became the sole incumbent, took an active interest in public affairs; he was a member of the school board and was chosen chaplain of the State Senate. He invited anti-slavery lecturers into his pulpit and helped philanthropists of all denominations in their work. Three months after his ordination, however, Emerson found himself fettered even by the liberal doctrines of the Unitarians; and in 1832, disapproving the continuance of the Lords Supper as a permanent rite, he presented his scruples in a sermon to his parishioners. His views not receiving their support, he quietly withdrew from the church (Emerson: A Students History 17). Emerson s young wife, Ellen, a mere girl of seventeen when Emerson married her soon after his ordination, died in 1831. The strain of this mourning, combined with that of his separation from his church, affected his own health, and on Christmas Day, 1832, Emerson, urged by his friends to take a sea voyage, sailed from Boston on a small vessel bound for the Mediterranean. He visited Italy, France, and England; and apparently found his greatest satisfaction in the opportunity thus afforded to meet the noted men whom he had long wished to see. It was on this trip that inspired Emerson to become a naturalist after viewing a botanical exhibition in Paris (Emerson: A Students History 19). In 1834, Ralph Waldo Emerson became a resident of Concord. For a year he lived with his mother in the old-fashioned gambrel-roofed house, built as a parsonage for his grandfather, who in his time had served the Concord church. It was this house which subsequently came to be occupied by the novelist Hawthorne, and was given fame in the title of his Mosses from an Old Manse. In 1835, Emerson was married to Miss Lidian Jackson, of Plymouth, and settled in the house, then on the edge of the town. There was, too, a circle of intimate friends about him, some, like Bronson Alcott and Margaret Fuller, attracted thither by the presence of one generally recognized as the ablest prophet of transcendentalism. The young and talented Thoreau, a disciple, although a very independent one, early engaged his interest. In 1842, Hawthorne came to Concord, and for five years dwelt in the Old Manse. Occasionally, too, there appeared fantastic dreamers with queer schemes of social ormation in their heads who sought out Emerson in his retreat as if to consult the oracle at some sacred shrine. Altogether, the little New England town became closely identified with that strong intellectual movement which Emerson, more than any other American writer had inspired (Emerson: A Students History 21). In 1840, Emerson published the Dial, a magazine for which he used to circulate not only his works, but also his entire group of transcendentalist followers. The Dial was conceived as a medium for the freest expression of thought on the questions which interest earnest minds in every community; (Emerson: A Students History 23). Emersons poetry, as well as his prose works, from the time period of the Dial shows a steady decline in his idealism. Society and Solitude, published in 1870, marked the beginning of Emersons decline as an essayist (Emerson: A Students History 24). Emerson died in Concord on April 27, 1882, at age 78 and was buried in Sleepy Hollow. Transcendentalism was an influential philosophy that surfaced in the late eighteenth century and lasted well into the nineteenth century. Many experts feel it is incorrect to er to this movement as a philosophy because it was much more than just a philosophy. It was also a religious, literary, theological and social movement (American Transcendentalism 2). The first transcendentalist ideas and chief source for its growth later on, was the Critique of Pure Reason, written by the German philosopher Immanuel Kant in 1781. According to Emersons understanding of Kant, Transcendentalism becomes a union of solipsism, under which the only verifiable reality is thought to be the self, and materialism, under which the only verifiable reality is the quantifiable external world of objects and sense data (American Transcendentalism 4.) It was this piece that inspired Emerson to write Nature, the essay that articulates the true philosophical underpinnings of the movement. It was Kant s work that made Emerson realize that the people and churches of the nineteenth century had become too materialistic. Emerson said of society in his essay, The Transcendentalist; As thinkers, mankind have divided into two sects, Materialists and Idealists; the first class founding on experience, the second on consciousness (American Transcendentalism 4). Transcendentalism originated as a radical religious movement opposed to the rationalist, conservative institution that Unitarianism had become. Ironically, a great deal of the movement s early followers were or had been Unitarian ministers, including Emerson who came from a long line of Unitarian ministers. The early transcendentalists had felt Unitarianism had become too demanding both spiritually and emotionally. The foregoing generations beheld God and nature face to face, we through their eyes. Why should not we also enjoy an original relation to the universe, questioned Emerson (American Transcendentalism 5). He wanted people to be open-minded and idealistic. He believed that people should find inspiration and ecstasy in nature and use that as the way to show tribute and respect to God. Emerson placed extreme emphasis on idealism, and often erred to transcendentalism as idealism, What is popularly called Transcendentalism among us, is Idealism; Idealism as it appears in 1842, he wrote in The Transcendentalist, (American Transcendentalism 5). The emphasis on idealism came about due to the fact that too many people found their knowledge through experience and observation, or empiricism as Unitarianism had taught. Transcendentalism taught that reality existed only in the spiritual world, and that what a person observed n the physical world was only the appearances, or impermanent lections of the spiritual world. They explained that people learned about the physical world by using empiricism, but to understand the spiritual world and reality, one had to use another kind of power called reason. The transcendentalists defined reason as the independent and intuitive capacity to know what is absolutely true (Clendenning 295). Emerson still believed the physical world served humanity by providing useful goods and by making human beings aware of beauty. Clendenning said, Emerson wanted people to learn as much as they possibly through experience and observation as well, but this was secondary to the truths seen through reason. The transcendentalists believed that human beings had to find truth within themselves theore, they greatly stressed self-reliance and individuality. They claimed society was a necessary evil. They argued that to learn all that is right, a person must ignore custom and social codes and rely on reason. They wanted people to use intuition more than traditional beliefs, (295). The transcendentalists assumed a universe divided into two essential parts, the soul and nature. Emerson defined the soul by defining nature: all that is separated from us, all which Philosophy distinguishes as the NOT ME, that is, both nature and art, all other men and my own body, must be ranked under this name, NATURE, (American Transcendentalism 6). A fundamental Transcendentalist principle was the belief in the reliability of the human conscience. This idea was based upon the conviction of the immanence, or indwelling, of God in the soul of the individual. We see God around us because He dwells within us, wrote William Ellery Channing in 1828; the beauty and glory of God s works are revealed to the mind by a light beaming from itself (Clendenning 295). The Transcendentalism wave died out in the 1860s, but it has had lasting effects until today. Though its spread wasnt very far, it made Concord an intellectual capital.	5,457	ENGLISH	1
Martin Luther King Jr. was an unforgettable crusader for the rights of Blacks. Read about him here. Some speeches have rewritten the course of history. One of them is "I have a dream..." rendered by the civil rights activist Martin Luther King Jr. It was on 28 August 1963 at Lincoln Memorial in Washington during the 'March on Washington'. Around 3,00,000 people bore witness to the speech. Martin Luther King shared to them his dream of a time where the division between the Black and the White people would be nonexistent. Martin Luther King, often known as the 'American Gandhi', was born on 15 January 1929 to Rev: Martin Luther King Sr. and Alberta Williams King. His childhood was fraught with discrimination. Although slavery had been abolished in America, the Black people didn't have any status or consideration equal to the Whites. Discrimination was evident in schools, buses and public places. Martin raised his voice against this discrimination in his childhood itself. He was a Theology student and became a pastor in Baptist church. His role model was Mahatma Gandhi and he assumed the way of non-violence to fight the racial discrimination. The famous Montgomery Bus Boycott of 1955 was an incident that had had a great influence of King. Following this, the Blacks, led by King, decided to boycott the bus services. He was a priest then. He was elected as the President of Montgomery Improvement Association. After a year of legal crusade, the Supreme Court declared in their favour. It was the rise of the human rights crusader in Martin Luther King. He founded Southern Christian Leadership Conference in 1957 to take his fights further. His activities had earned numerous supporters as well as enemies in a small amount of time. King recieved constant threats from various White extremist groups. They tried to destroy his image through slandering and violence. Once his home in Montgomery was targeted in a bomb attack. But none of them could detract Luther King. He continued his fight, and as a recognition, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Peace in 1964. However, the star named Martin Luther King Jr. didn't have a long lifespan. On 4th April 1968, a racist named James Earl Ray took that great life with a bullet at Lorraine Motel in Memphis. He was only 39 when he fell before the bullet. In King's memory, the 3rd Monday in January is observed as Martin Luther King day in America. It was first observed in 1986. The fight that started by King, is still continuing, through many other Luther Kings. There is a little more distance to go for the fulfilment of his dream. Everyone knows that the last stand for our Filipino-American soldiers during the Japanese Invasion in our country during the 2nd World War is a small island of Corregidor. But did you know the history of this small island during the Spanish, American and Japanese occupation in the country.. The American Revolution provided inspiration for the French Revolution as ideas about democracy and freedom plus equality were spread as a consequence of American victory. . Modern state appropriates all authority including a monopoly on violence and dispute resolution, and by specific laws, makes social self regulation illegal. In stark contrast to this, the Indian civilization evolved on the basis of self regulation of society through social means, where a central role was assigned to family, and the customs and traditions of people were the law..	<urn:uuid:e249142a-6f4f-4945-bc97-439421176219>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://travelandculture.expertscolumn.com/martin-luther-king-jr-american-gandhi	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00084.warc.gz	en	0.986505	687	3.390625	3	[ -0.277490496635437, 0.6757425665855408, 0.14374896883964539, -0.010890085250139236, -0.5292665362358093, 0.26265716552734375, 0.21937233209609985, 0.09200429916381836, -0.08730286359786987, 0.6019572615623474, 0.10104385018348694, 0.2883782982826233, 0.0774860829114914, -0.051822081208229065, -0.1836940348148346, 0.3544953465461731, 0.022962218150496483, 0.3193861246109009, -1.118945837020874, 0.07998042553663254, -0.13784030079841614, -0.27056950330734253, 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Read about him here. Some speeches have rewritten the course of history. One of them is "I have a dream..." rendered by the civil rights activist Martin Luther King Jr. It was on 28 August 1963 at Lincoln Memorial in Washington during the 'March on Washington'. Around 3,00,000 people bore witness to the speech. Martin Luther King shared to them his dream of a time where the division between the Black and the White people would be nonexistent. Martin Luther King, often known as the 'American Gandhi', was born on 15 January 1929 to Rev: Martin Luther King Sr. and Alberta Williams King. His childhood was fraught with discrimination. Although slavery had been abolished in America, the Black people didn't have any status or consideration equal to the Whites. Discrimination was evident in schools, buses and public places. Martin raised his voice against this discrimination in his childhood itself. He was a Theology student and became a pastor in Baptist church. His role model was Mahatma Gandhi and he assumed the way of non-violence to fight the racial discrimination. The famous Montgomery Bus Boycott of 1955 was an incident that had had a great influence of King. Following this, the Blacks, led by King, decided to boycott the bus services. He was a priest then. He was elected as the President of Montgomery Improvement Association. After a year of legal crusade, the Supreme Court declared in their favour. It was the rise of the human rights crusader in Martin Luther King. He founded Southern Christian Leadership Conference in 1957 to take his fights further. His activities had earned numerous supporters as well as enemies in a small amount of time. King recieved constant threats from various White extremist groups. They tried to destroy his image through slandering and violence. Once his home in Montgomery was targeted in a bomb attack. But none of them could detract Luther King. He continued his fight, and as a recognition, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Peace in 1964. However, the star named Martin Luther King Jr. didn't have a long lifespan. On 4th April 1968, a racist named James Earl Ray took that great life with a bullet at Lorraine Motel in Memphis. He was only 39 when he fell before the bullet. In King's memory, the 3rd Monday in January is observed as Martin Luther King day in America. It was first observed in 1986. The fight that started by King, is still continuing, through many other Luther Kings. There is a little more distance to go for the fulfilment of his dream. Everyone knows that the last stand for our Filipino-American soldiers during the Japanese Invasion in our country during the 2nd World War is a small island of Corregidor. But did you know the history of this small island during the Spanish, American and Japanese occupation in the country.. The American Revolution provided inspiration for the French Revolution as ideas about democracy and freedom plus equality were spread as a consequence of American victory. . Modern state appropriates all authority including a monopoly on violence and dispute resolution, and by specific laws, makes social self regulation illegal. In stark contrast to this, the Indian civilization evolved on the basis of self regulation of society through social means, where a central role was assigned to family, and the customs and traditions of people were the law..	717	ENGLISH	1
Christianity has gone through several major events that have shaped the modern religious environment. One of the largest events to ever have occurred in the history of Christianity was the inquisition. The inquisition was a movement carried out by various bodies within the Roman Catholic Church meant to fight against heretics. The Roman Catholic Church termed the event as inquiry on heretical perversity (Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis)1. The movement was directed towards heretical behavior of converts and Catholic believers, and was not concerned with individuals outside its jurisdiction, such as Muslims or Jews. Historians have identified four main instances where the inquisition occurred. They include: The medieval inquisition, the Spanish Inquisition, the Portuguese Inquisition and the Roman Inquisition. The Early Roman Catholic Church In order to understand how the Inquisition was created, it is important to understand how the early medieval society existed and the position of the Catholic Church at this time. The Church has always believed that it is the only representative of Christ here on earth, and was assigned the duty of spreading Christ’s teachings to everyone2. To question this sacred duty or the authority of the Church to carry out this duty is the height of offence. This fact is enhanced further by the claim of the Church that it is the ultimate authority in all affairs, including monarchs3. At the helm of this belief is the Pope who insists on his own infallibility. According to the Church, decisions made by the pope are inspired by God therefore they cannot be questioned or mistaken4. The Medieval Inquisition During the 12th century, Pope Lucius III announced the Episcopal Inquisition after he issued a papal bull called the Ad abolendum on 4th November, 11845. The papal bull also known as the Charter of the Inquisition stated that in order to eradicate the various heresies that were springing up in different parts of the world, the full power of the church should be awakened. The bull was an instruction to bishop and held that all heretics who refused to repent were to be turned over to civil authorities and that their material wealth confiscated to be used by the Church6. The papal bull was meant to counter the budding Catharist movement in southern France. It was however unsuccessful in eliminating the spread of heretic movements.. During the 13th century, the world was experiencing a great change. The Roman Catholic Church had gained a lot of power and had a virtually absolute control over most of the Christian world. Farming practices had evolved and technology was growing at a very fast pace. Education was improving and the church was unable to assert its control on the education institutions that were springing up at a very fast pace7. It was during this time that the Roman Catholic instituted the earliest formal Inquisition. The inquisition was directed at the increasing heretical movements at the time especially the Cathars and the Waldensians8. Pope Gregory IX instigated the Inquisition when he requested investigations to be carried out on the Cathars of Southern France. The Church had at one time tried to eliminate them through the Albigensian Crusade but failed. The church then started the Episcopal inquisition that was operated by local clergy but this failed too. Pope Gregory sought to remedy this by instituting an inquisition that was to be operated by trained clergy men9. The Pope chose individuals mainly from the Dominican Order as they had a strong reputation of being anti-heresy. The Catharist heresy was that believers of this movement believed that there were two gods who were equal in power. One god was the embodiment of everything that was chaotic, corporeal and powerful. The other god was the embodiment of peace, order and love. He was a being of pure spirit and was entirely untarnished by the stain of matter10. It was this god that they worshipped. The Waldensians differed from the Cathars in that they believed in the existence of the only one supreme God. This sect was started by Peter Waldo who gave up all his material wealth and began preaching about poverty and simplicity. Within a short time, he had a large following of individuals who had given up all their wealth and travelled spreading the gospel and living lives of poverty. Since Waldo was not trained by the Church, Pope Alexander III therefore concluded that his teachings were without divide inspiration and ordered him to stop11. Waldo and his followers refused the limitations imposed on them by the church and continued with their work. As a result, the next Pope Lucius III excommunicated all the members of the movement and soon after they were placed in the list of known heretics. The medieval inquisition was very systematic and most of the details were recorded. The inquisition followed a laid out procedure that was followed by all inquisitors. First, an investigation of the alleged heretics was carried out. When the inquisitor entered a town suspected to be harboring heretics, he first requested for a town meeting. At the meeting, the inquisitor offered the people a chance to denounce themselves promising easy punishment for those who complied. If no one stepped forward, the inquisitor had the power to demand that people be interrogated in order to gain information12. The second step involved the trial. In order to receive a lighter punishment, the accused had to offer a full confession together with a list of other heretics in the area. Testimony could be taken from any source including convicted heretics, people of unsavory characters, individuals who had been excommunicated and even criminals. The accused was however granted the right to name people who may have a grudge with him and if the accuser was on that list, the case was dropped and the accuser sent to jail for life. This was to ensure that the process was not used by people to settle local disputes13. The third step involved torture. Pope Innocent IV issued a papal bull that allowed the use of torture during inquisitions. During the earlier part of the Medieval inquisition torture was hardly used and it only become widely use in the 14th century. All methods of torture that could result in miscarriages, mutilation, bloodshed and death were forbidden by the church14. The final step in the medieval inquisition was punishment. Those who failed to repent were forwarded to the secular authority where they faced corporal punishment, life imprisonment and sometimes death. By the end of the Medieval Inquisition, All the Cathars had been eliminated by the Church. The medieval inquisition came to an end in the 15th century after it was replaced by the Spanish Inquisition15. By the end of the Medieval Inquisition, All the Cathars had been eliminated by the Church. The Spanish Inquisition Of all the inquisitions, none has received much attention like the Spanish Inquisition. This is mainly due to the fact that it was the bloodiest and most controversial inquisition to ever have been propagated by the Roman Catholic Church. During much of Spain’s history, the three main religions i.e. Christianity, Islam and Judaism coexisted together in relative peace16. Spain was divided into two; the large part was controlled by Christian while a small part (the Iberian Peninsula) was controlled by the Muslims Moors until the 12th Century when the Christians defeated the Moors in a war and Christian rule was re-instituted. Under the Muslim rule, the Jews flourished as they were granted several privileges. Although they we discriminated in some activities, they could own possessions, practice their faiths and work among the Moors. During the end of the 11th century, a second invasion of Islam adherents took place. The Almohads had little patience with non-believers and Jews were persecuted and driven away from their homes where they settled in the Christian dominated part of Spain17. These Jews knew Arabic and had a lot of experience on the most effective commercial techniques. The political leaders of the Christian Spain therefore promoted the settlement of the Jews despite the objections from the Catholic Church. During the prosperous age in Spain history, the three religions lived in relative peace. Work was available for all and there was no need for competition or rivalry. This however came to an end after the Black Death ravaged the country. People found themselves poor without enough resources to satisfy everyone. The Christians believed that the plague was a curse for sins they had carried out. Christian monks urged the people to repent and return to the Church. The presence of the Jews was now an unacceptable condition as the Church believed they were corrupted by evil. The anti-Semitic sermons by the archdeacon of Ecija, Martinez Fernand, finally sparked an all out persecution that swept the whole of Spain18. Synagogues were looted and converted into churches, Jews were murdered and most of them were turned out of the homes and places of work. At this time most Jews offered to be converted while some of them left Spain. During the beginning of the 14th century there were very many conversions and a new breed of Christians, the conversos, emerged in Spain19. In 1477, Queen Isabel I was notified by a Friar that there existed Crypto-Jews among the Conversos in Andalusia. She then decided to institute the Inquisition to find and punish the crypto-Jews, and requested for the Pope’s permission. The Pope issued a papal bull accepting the request but only after he was pressured into it by Ferdinard II of Aragon20. This inquisition was not controlled by the Church but rather by the Monarchy. In 1483, all the Jews who had not converted were chased out of Andalusia. Another Papal Bull was passed later that year on the insistence of Ferdinard. This time the bull instituted a formal inquisition under the guidance of the Church. Under this new system, people were given a month long grace period were they could confess and information could be gathered on possible crypto-Jews21. The Inquisitor laid down some of the evidence used to identify crypto-Jews that included: Those who stocked up food before the Passover, those who bought their meat from Jewish butchers or converses only and those houses in which no smoke was visible on Saturdays as this would mean they were secretly observing the Sabbath22. Crypto-Jews were given the chance to confess and denounce their ways but those who relapsed faced death by burning. About 2000 people were executed between 1480 and 1530 with over 90% having Jewish origins23. In 1492, all Jews who had refused to convert were expelled from Spain24. During that year, just before the deadline, many Jews converted to Christianity by baptism. Apart from crypto-Jews, the Inquisition also targeted Moriscos (converted Muslims) and Protestants. However, the number of Protestants in Spain was very low hence only a small number of Lutherans were ever presented before the Inquisition. In 1609, King Phillip III gave the order that saw all the Moriscos expelled from Spain25. The Spanish Inquisition followed various steps that included the accusation, detention, trial, torture, sentencing and the autos-da-fe. The first step was the accusation of suspected heretics. The Inquisitor usually read the Edict of Grace after the Sunday mass; that was a compilation of suspected heresies and would urge everyone to attend the tribunals in order to ease their conscience26. The Edict of Grace was so called as it allowed anyone who confessed within the grace period lenience. Those who confessed were urged to name others and as such, they were the main source of information. After the Edict of Grace came the Edict of Faith. This involved urging the people to anonymously denounce those among them that they suspected of being guilty. The second step was the detention of those denounced. Most people were detained for a very long time before their case could be studied by the qualifiers. During detention, the material belongings of the accused was confiscated and sold to pay for the proceedings as well as pay the various parties involved in the case27. The third step was the trial and torture of the accused. Both the accused and their denouncers were given a chance to offer their testimonies. The defendant was granted counsel who mainly acted as advisers while at the same time urging the defendant to tell the truth. The defendant had to options to plead his case; he could either find witnesses to support his claim or he could prove that the accuser’s testimonies are untrustworthy28. As in most tribunals during this period, torture was also used to acquire information. The torture used was such that it could not disfigure the accused or draw blood. The final step involved the sentencing of the accused by the courts. In some cases, though rarely, the defendant could be set free. In most cases, the accused was reconciled with the Church through punishment. The ultimate punishment was relaxation to the local authorities. This involved being executed by burning at the stake at a public execution29. The final step is autos-da-fe carried out after every condemnatory sentencing. It involved a public ritual that formalized the return of the individual to the church or in some cases the punishment of the individual as an impudent heretic30. The Spanish Inquisition came to an end when a royal decree by Maria Christina of the Two Sicilies abolished the system. The Portuguese Inquisition This was a tribunal instituted in Portugal after King Joao III Manuel I had requested the Pope to set up the inquisition31. The Portuguese Inquisition was very similar to the Spanish inquisition in terms of the targets of the Inquisition and the process of the inquisition. As in the Spanish version, the Portuguese Inquisition targeted conversos suspected of practicing Judaism in secret32. Many of these converses originated from Spain and had sought refuge in Portugal during the Spanish inquisition. In Portugal, the Inquisition was also under the authority of the Monarch and the Grand Inquisitor was chosen by the King but named by the Pope33. The inquisition targets new converts who did not follow the doctrines of the Catholic Church. The inquisition was also carried out in colonies of Portugal mainly Goa, Cape Verde and Brazil. Cases of bigamy and witchcraft were also investigated by the Inquisition as well as the censure of books thought to be against the Catholic Church. The inquisition mimicked the Spanish inquisition and involved the accusation, detention, trial, torture, sentencing and the autos-da-fe34. The total number of those burned at the stake has been cited as 1808 between 1540 and 1794. In 1674, the Portuguese Inquisition was suspended and the inquisitors were instructed not to confiscate property, torture or pass sentences of relaxation. This was mainly due to the work of Antonio Vieira who approached Pope Innocent IX in order to stop the practice35. The Inquisition however was formerly abolished in 1821 by the Constituent assembly of the country after being dormant for a long time. The Roman Inquisition The Roman Inquisition was instituted as a chain of tribunals that was charged with prosecution individuals charged with heresy, professing to Judaism, sorcery and immorality among other crimes against the church. The inquisition was also responsible for censoring of literature that was deemed to be against the Church or that threatened the power of the church. The Inquisition was instituted in 1542 by Pope Paul III and lasted for about 300 years36. The Roman Inquisition was mainly instituted to curb the spread of the Protestant movement in Italy. The Inquisition was initiated by the Papal bull from Pope Paul III, Licet ab Initio in 195237. This was as a response to his growing concerns on the spread of emerging protestant movements such as the Lutherans, Calvinists and other protestant movements. The inquisition was modeled after the Canon law and was meant to ensure that the supremacy of the Roman Catholic Church was not under any threat38. The Inquisition followed similar steps as those before it. The first step was identification of heretics. This was either through confession or denunciation. Those who freely confessed were only given light punishment but those who were denounced had to go to trial. Those denounced were arrested and brought before the Inquisition. After presentation, the accused was given a chance to name all the people that bore him malice. After this, witnesses were brought before the court and the proceedings were initiated. The Inquisition required that accurate records of the proceeding be kept starting from the summoning to the final punishment39. After the trial, torture was also used to get information. Torture was however only allowed when the evidence proved without a doubt that the accused is guilty or when the accused insisted on innocence despite the evidence presented40. The Inquisition generally ended with the sentencing whereby those who repented and denounced their ways were re-integrated back to the church after the punishment laid down by the Inquisitor or in rare occasions, the accused was hanged if he did not renounce his way. The Inquisition is one of the most important events to occur in religious history. It has elicited many views and emotions to various people. To the Catholics, it was a regrettable mistake, to others it was a travesty perpetuated by a religious order that aimed to control the world. The inquisition mainly developed due to the narrow mindedness of the Catholic Church during a time when the world is changing. It began as a way for the Church to control intelligent thought and thinking of people. The infallibility of the Pope in that all decisions made by him are under Divine inspiration may was the source of the Church’s narrow mindedness. The reaction to the rise of heretical movement was also flawed and resulted in an even bigger break-up of the Church. Out of the four Inquisitions that took place during the history of the Church, it was the Spanish Inquisition that had the biggest effect of them all. This inquisition led to numerous deaths and the displacement of a whole group of people. The inquisition has become one of the biggest mistake ever carried out by the church and has been used many times to question the divine origin of the Catholic Church. Kamen, Henry. The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision. New York: Yale University Press, 1997 Perez, Joseph. The Spanish Inquisition: A History. New York: Yale University Press, 2004 Peters, Edward. The Inquisition. California: University of California Press, 1989 Rawlings, Helen. The Spanish Inquisition. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2006 Thomsett, Michael. The Inquisition: A History. North Carolina: MacFarland & Company, Inc. Publishers, 2010 Vacandard, E. The Inquisition: A Critical and Historical Study of the Coercive Power of the Church. Fairford: The Echo Library, 2010 1 Michael Thomsett, The Inquisition: A History (North Carolina: MacFarland & Company, Inc. Publishers, 2010), 3 2 Ibid, 4 3 E. Vacandard, The Inquisition: A Critical and Historical Study of the Coercive Power of the Church (Fairford: The Echo Library, 2010), 14 4 Ibid, 4 5 Thomsett, The Inquisition, 13 6 Edward Peters, The Inquisition (California: University of California Press, 1989), 41 7 Vacandard, Coercive Power of the Church, 6 8 Peters, The Inquisition, 43 9 Thomsett, The Inquisition, 14 10 Ibid, 14 11 Peters, The Inquisition, 45 12 Thomsett, The Inquisition, 15 13 Ibid, 15 14 Peters, The Inquisition, 52 15 Thomsett, The Inquisition, 15 16 Helen Rawlings, The Spanish Inquisition (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2006), 26 17 Joseph Perez, The Spanish Inquisition: A History (New York: Yale University Press, 2004), 5 18 Ibid, 7 19 Ibid, 8 20 Rawlings, The Spanish Inquisition, 30 21 Perez, The Spanish Inquisition, 12 22 Ibid, 13 23 Henry Kamen, The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision (New York: Yale University Press, 1997), 17 24 Perez, The Spanish Inquisition, 34 25 Ibid, 46 26 Ibid, 133 27 Kamen, Spanish Inquisition, 32 28 Perez, The Spanish Inquisition, 146 29 Perez, The Spanish Inquisition, 148 30 Ibid, 154 31 Vacandard, Study of Coercive Power of State, 78 32 Ibid, 78 33 Thomsett, The Inquisition, 133 34 Perez, The Spanish Inquisition, 158 35 Thomsett, The Inquisition, 135 36 Ibid, 206 37 Thomsett, The Inquisition, 209 38 Ibid, 206 39 Peters, The Inquisition, 106 40 Ibid, 107	<urn:uuid:d99c9313-6815-4fd1-bd4e-41b820db9107>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://ivypanda.com/essays/a-study-of-the-inquisition-research-paper/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00235.warc.gz	en	0.980726	4,241	3.3125	3	[ 0.5006752014160156, 0.3169357180595398, 0.2461751103401184, 0.05931618809700012, 0.2580406665802002, -0.07130403071641922, -0.5290339589118958, 0.12066487967967987, 0.35273900628089905, -0.0026299799792468548, -0.29109227657318115, -0.05079546943306923, -0.23185083270072937, 0.09045755118131638, 0.07640543580055237, 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One of the largest events to ever have occurred in the history of Christianity was the inquisition. The inquisition was a movement carried out by various bodies within the Roman Catholic Church meant to fight against heretics. The Roman Catholic Church termed the event as inquiry on heretical perversity (Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis)1. The movement was directed towards heretical behavior of converts and Catholic believers, and was not concerned with individuals outside its jurisdiction, such as Muslims or Jews. Historians have identified four main instances where the inquisition occurred. They include: The medieval inquisition, the Spanish Inquisition, the Portuguese Inquisition and the Roman Inquisition. The Early Roman Catholic Church In order to understand how the Inquisition was created, it is important to understand how the early medieval society existed and the position of the Catholic Church at this time. The Church has always believed that it is the only representative of Christ here on earth, and was assigned the duty of spreading Christ’s teachings to everyone2. To question this sacred duty or the authority of the Church to carry out this duty is the height of offence. This fact is enhanced further by the claim of the Church that it is the ultimate authority in all affairs, including monarchs3. At the helm of this belief is the Pope who insists on his own infallibility. According to the Church, decisions made by the pope are inspired by God therefore they cannot be questioned or mistaken4. The Medieval Inquisition During the 12th century, Pope Lucius III announced the Episcopal Inquisition after he issued a papal bull called the Ad abolendum on 4th November, 11845. The papal bull also known as the Charter of the Inquisition stated that in order to eradicate the various heresies that were springing up in different parts of the world, the full power of the church should be awakened. The bull was an instruction to bishop and held that all heretics who refused to repent were to be turned over to civil authorities and that their material wealth confiscated to be used by the Church6. The papal bull was meant to counter the budding Catharist movement in southern France. It was however unsuccessful in eliminating the spread of heretic movements.. During the 13th century, the world was experiencing a great change. The Roman Catholic Church had gained a lot of power and had a virtually absolute control over most of the Christian world. Farming practices had evolved and technology was growing at a very fast pace. Education was improving and the church was unable to assert its control on the education institutions that were springing up at a very fast pace7. It was during this time that the Roman Catholic instituted the earliest formal Inquisition. The inquisition was directed at the increasing heretical movements at the time especially the Cathars and the Waldensians8. Pope Gregory IX instigated the Inquisition when he requested investigations to be carried out on the Cathars of Southern France. The Church had at one time tried to eliminate them through the Albigensian Crusade but failed. The church then started the Episcopal inquisition that was operated by local clergy but this failed too. Pope Gregory sought to remedy this by instituting an inquisition that was to be operated by trained clergy men9. The Pope chose individuals mainly from the Dominican Order as they had a strong reputation of being anti-heresy. The Catharist heresy was that believers of this movement believed that there were two gods who were equal in power. One god was the embodiment of everything that was chaotic, corporeal and powerful. The other god was the embodiment of peace, order and love. He was a being of pure spirit and was entirely untarnished by the stain of matter10. It was this god that they worshipped. The Waldensians differed from the Cathars in that they believed in the existence of the only one supreme God. This sect was started by Peter Waldo who gave up all his material wealth and began preaching about poverty and simplicity. Within a short time, he had a large following of individuals who had given up all their wealth and travelled spreading the gospel and living lives of poverty. Since Waldo was not trained by the Church, Pope Alexander III therefore concluded that his teachings were without divide inspiration and ordered him to stop11. Waldo and his followers refused the limitations imposed on them by the church and continued with their work. As a result, the next Pope Lucius III excommunicated all the members of the movement and soon after they were placed in the list of known heretics. The medieval inquisition was very systematic and most of the details were recorded. The inquisition followed a laid out procedure that was followed by all inquisitors. First, an investigation of the alleged heretics was carried out. When the inquisitor entered a town suspected to be harboring heretics, he first requested for a town meeting. At the meeting, the inquisitor offered the people a chance to denounce themselves promising easy punishment for those who complied. If no one stepped forward, the inquisitor had the power to demand that people be interrogated in order to gain information12. The second step involved the trial. In order to receive a lighter punishment, the accused had to offer a full confession together with a list of other heretics in the area. Testimony could be taken from any source including convicted heretics, people of unsavory characters, individuals who had been excommunicated and even criminals. The accused was however granted the right to name people who may have a grudge with him and if the accuser was on that list, the case was dropped and the accuser sent to jail for life. This was to ensure that the process was not used by people to settle local disputes13. The third step involved torture. Pope Innocent IV issued a papal bull that allowed the use of torture during inquisitions. During the earlier part of the Medieval inquisition torture was hardly used and it only become widely use in the 14th century. All methods of torture that could result in miscarriages, mutilation, bloodshed and death were forbidden by the church14. The final step in the medieval inquisition was punishment. Those who failed to repent were forwarded to the secular authority where they faced corporal punishment, life imprisonment and sometimes death. By the end of the Medieval Inquisition, All the Cathars had been eliminated by the Church. The medieval inquisition came to an end in the 15th century after it was replaced by the Spanish Inquisition15. By the end of the Medieval Inquisition, All the Cathars had been eliminated by the Church. The Spanish Inquisition Of all the inquisitions, none has received much attention like the Spanish Inquisition. This is mainly due to the fact that it was the bloodiest and most controversial inquisition to ever have been propagated by the Roman Catholic Church. During much of Spain’s history, the three main religions i.e. Christianity, Islam and Judaism coexisted together in relative peace16. Spain was divided into two; the large part was controlled by Christian while a small part (the Iberian Peninsula) was controlled by the Muslims Moors until the 12th Century when the Christians defeated the Moors in a war and Christian rule was re-instituted. Under the Muslim rule, the Jews flourished as they were granted several privileges. Although they we discriminated in some activities, they could own possessions, practice their faiths and work among the Moors. During the end of the 11th century, a second invasion of Islam adherents took place. The Almohads had little patience with non-believers and Jews were persecuted and driven away from their homes where they settled in the Christian dominated part of Spain17. These Jews knew Arabic and had a lot of experience on the most effective commercial techniques. The political leaders of the Christian Spain therefore promoted the settlement of the Jews despite the objections from the Catholic Church. During the prosperous age in Spain history, the three religions lived in relative peace. Work was available for all and there was no need for competition or rivalry. This however came to an end after the Black Death ravaged the country. People found themselves poor without enough resources to satisfy everyone. The Christians believed that the plague was a curse for sins they had carried out. Christian monks urged the people to repent and return to the Church. The presence of the Jews was now an unacceptable condition as the Church believed they were corrupted by evil. The anti-Semitic sermons by the archdeacon of Ecija, Martinez Fernand, finally sparked an all out persecution that swept the whole of Spain18. Synagogues were looted and converted into churches, Jews were murdered and most of them were turned out of the homes and places of work. At this time most Jews offered to be converted while some of them left Spain. During the beginning of the 14th century there were very many conversions and a new breed of Christians, the conversos, emerged in Spain19. In 1477, Queen Isabel I was notified by a Friar that there existed Crypto-Jews among the Conversos in Andalusia. She then decided to institute the Inquisition to find and punish the crypto-Jews, and requested for the Pope’s permission. The Pope issued a papal bull accepting the request but only after he was pressured into it by Ferdinard II of Aragon20. This inquisition was not controlled by the Church but rather by the Monarchy. In 1483, all the Jews who had not converted were chased out of Andalusia. Another Papal Bull was passed later that year on the insistence of Ferdinard. This time the bull instituted a formal inquisition under the guidance of the Church. Under this new system, people were given a month long grace period were they could confess and information could be gathered on possible crypto-Jews21. The Inquisitor laid down some of the evidence used to identify crypto-Jews that included: Those who stocked up food before the Passover, those who bought their meat from Jewish butchers or converses only and those houses in which no smoke was visible on Saturdays as this would mean they were secretly observing the Sabbath22. Crypto-Jews were given the chance to confess and denounce their ways but those who relapsed faced death by burning. About 2000 people were executed between 1480 and 1530 with over 90% having Jewish origins23. In 1492, all Jews who had refused to convert were expelled from Spain24. During that year, just before the deadline, many Jews converted to Christianity by baptism. Apart from crypto-Jews, the Inquisition also targeted Moriscos (converted Muslims) and Protestants. However, the number of Protestants in Spain was very low hence only a small number of Lutherans were ever presented before the Inquisition. In 1609, King Phillip III gave the order that saw all the Moriscos expelled from Spain25. The Spanish Inquisition followed various steps that included the accusation, detention, trial, torture, sentencing and the autos-da-fe. The first step was the accusation of suspected heretics. The Inquisitor usually read the Edict of Grace after the Sunday mass; that was a compilation of suspected heresies and would urge everyone to attend the tribunals in order to ease their conscience26. The Edict of Grace was so called as it allowed anyone who confessed within the grace period lenience. Those who confessed were urged to name others and as such, they were the main source of information. After the Edict of Grace came the Edict of Faith. This involved urging the people to anonymously denounce those among them that they suspected of being guilty. The second step was the detention of those denounced. Most people were detained for a very long time before their case could be studied by the qualifiers. During detention, the material belongings of the accused was confiscated and sold to pay for the proceedings as well as pay the various parties involved in the case27. The third step was the trial and torture of the accused. Both the accused and their denouncers were given a chance to offer their testimonies. The defendant was granted counsel who mainly acted as advisers while at the same time urging the defendant to tell the truth. The defendant had to options to plead his case; he could either find witnesses to support his claim or he could prove that the accuser’s testimonies are untrustworthy28. As in most tribunals during this period, torture was also used to acquire information. The torture used was such that it could not disfigure the accused or draw blood. The final step involved the sentencing of the accused by the courts. In some cases, though rarely, the defendant could be set free. In most cases, the accused was reconciled with the Church through punishment. The ultimate punishment was relaxation to the local authorities. This involved being executed by burning at the stake at a public execution29. The final step is autos-da-fe carried out after every condemnatory sentencing. It involved a public ritual that formalized the return of the individual to the church or in some cases the punishment of the individual as an impudent heretic30. The Spanish Inquisition came to an end when a royal decree by Maria Christina of the Two Sicilies abolished the system. The Portuguese Inquisition This was a tribunal instituted in Portugal after King Joao III Manuel I had requested the Pope to set up the inquisition31. The Portuguese Inquisition was very similar to the Spanish inquisition in terms of the targets of the Inquisition and the process of the inquisition. As in the Spanish version, the Portuguese Inquisition targeted conversos suspected of practicing Judaism in secret32. Many of these converses originated from Spain and had sought refuge in Portugal during the Spanish inquisition. In Portugal, the Inquisition was also under the authority of the Monarch and the Grand Inquisitor was chosen by the King but named by the Pope33. The inquisition targets new converts who did not follow the doctrines of the Catholic Church. The inquisition was also carried out in colonies of Portugal mainly Goa, Cape Verde and Brazil. Cases of bigamy and witchcraft were also investigated by the Inquisition as well as the censure of books thought to be against the Catholic Church. The inquisition mimicked the Spanish inquisition and involved the accusation, detention, trial, torture, sentencing and the autos-da-fe34. The total number of those burned at the stake has been cited as 1808 between 1540 and 1794. In 1674, the Portuguese Inquisition was suspended and the inquisitors were instructed not to confiscate property, torture or pass sentences of relaxation. This was mainly due to the work of Antonio Vieira who approached Pope Innocent IX in order to stop the practice35. The Inquisition however was formerly abolished in 1821 by the Constituent assembly of the country after being dormant for a long time. The Roman Inquisition The Roman Inquisition was instituted as a chain of tribunals that was charged with prosecution individuals charged with heresy, professing to Judaism, sorcery and immorality among other crimes against the church. The inquisition was also responsible for censoring of literature that was deemed to be against the Church or that threatened the power of the church. The Inquisition was instituted in 1542 by Pope Paul III and lasted for about 300 years36. The Roman Inquisition was mainly instituted to curb the spread of the Protestant movement in Italy. The Inquisition was initiated by the Papal bull from Pope Paul III, Licet ab Initio in 195237. This was as a response to his growing concerns on the spread of emerging protestant movements such as the Lutherans, Calvinists and other protestant movements. The inquisition was modeled after the Canon law and was meant to ensure that the supremacy of the Roman Catholic Church was not under any threat38. The Inquisition followed similar steps as those before it. The first step was identification of heretics. This was either through confession or denunciation. Those who freely confessed were only given light punishment but those who were denounced had to go to trial. Those denounced were arrested and brought before the Inquisition. After presentation, the accused was given a chance to name all the people that bore him malice. After this, witnesses were brought before the court and the proceedings were initiated. The Inquisition required that accurate records of the proceeding be kept starting from the summoning to the final punishment39. After the trial, torture was also used to get information. Torture was however only allowed when the evidence proved without a doubt that the accused is guilty or when the accused insisted on innocence despite the evidence presented40. The Inquisition generally ended with the sentencing whereby those who repented and denounced their ways were re-integrated back to the church after the punishment laid down by the Inquisitor or in rare occasions, the accused was hanged if he did not renounce his way. The Inquisition is one of the most important events to occur in religious history. It has elicited many views and emotions to various people. To the Catholics, it was a regrettable mistake, to others it was a travesty perpetuated by a religious order that aimed to control the world. The inquisition mainly developed due to the narrow mindedness of the Catholic Church during a time when the world is changing. It began as a way for the Church to control intelligent thought and thinking of people. The infallibility of the Pope in that all decisions made by him are under Divine inspiration may was the source of the Church’s narrow mindedness. The reaction to the rise of heretical movement was also flawed and resulted in an even bigger break-up of the Church. Out of the four Inquisitions that took place during the history of the Church, it was the Spanish Inquisition that had the biggest effect of them all. This inquisition led to numerous deaths and the displacement of a whole group of people. The inquisition has become one of the biggest mistake ever carried out by the church and has been used many times to question the divine origin of the Catholic Church. Kamen, Henry. The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision. New York: Yale University Press, 1997 Perez, Joseph. The Spanish Inquisition: A History. New York: Yale University Press, 2004 Peters, Edward. The Inquisition. California: University of California Press, 1989 Rawlings, Helen. The Spanish Inquisition. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2006 Thomsett, Michael. The Inquisition: A History. North Carolina: MacFarland & Company, Inc. Publishers, 2010 Vacandard, E. The Inquisition: A Critical and Historical Study of the Coercive Power of the Church. Fairford: The Echo Library, 2010 1 Michael Thomsett, The Inquisition: A History (North Carolina: MacFarland & Company, Inc. Publishers, 2010), 3 2 Ibid, 4 3 E. Vacandard, The Inquisition: A Critical and Historical Study of the Coercive Power of the Church (Fairford: The Echo Library, 2010), 14 4 Ibid, 4 5 Thomsett, The Inquisition, 13 6 Edward Peters, The Inquisition (California: University of California Press, 1989), 41 7 Vacandard, Coercive Power of the Church, 6 8 Peters, The Inquisition, 43 9 Thomsett, The Inquisition, 14 10 Ibid, 14 11 Peters, The Inquisition, 45 12 Thomsett, The Inquisition, 15 13 Ibid, 15 14 Peters, The Inquisition, 52 15 Thomsett, The Inquisition, 15 16 Helen Rawlings, The Spanish Inquisition (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2006), 26 17 Joseph Perez, The Spanish Inquisition: A History (New York: Yale University Press, 2004), 5 18 Ibid, 7 19 Ibid, 8 20 Rawlings, The Spanish Inquisition, 30 21 Perez, The Spanish Inquisition, 12 22 Ibid, 13 23 Henry Kamen, The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision (New York: Yale University Press, 1997), 17 24 Perez, The Spanish Inquisition, 34 25 Ibid, 46 26 Ibid, 133 27 Kamen, Spanish Inquisition, 32 28 Perez, The Spanish Inquisition, 146 29 Perez, The Spanish Inquisition, 148 30 Ibid, 154 31 Vacandard, Study of Coercive Power of State, 78 32 Ibid, 78 33 Thomsett, The Inquisition, 133 34 Perez, The Spanish Inquisition, 158 35 Thomsett, The Inquisition, 135 36 Ibid, 206 37 Thomsett, The Inquisition, 209 38 Ibid, 206 39 Peters, The Inquisition, 106 40 Ibid, 107	4,526	ENGLISH	1
(Last Updated on : 04-08-2010) Women in Tebhaga movement played a rather significant role. After the end of the Second World War, there were a number of educated women who were participating in the various peasant rebellions that were springing up all over the country. The legacy of female nationalists, taking part in the Quit India Movement and accepting prison-sentence for the nation, had ignited the flame of protest in the hearts of women. Thus there was seen the active participation of women in these movements and rebellions of which the Tebhaga movement was one. Origin of Tebhaga movement In September of 1946 the Bengal Provincial Kisan Sabha (Peasant's Organization) called for a mass struggle among sharecroppers to keep 'tebhaga' (two-thirds) of the harvest. Young Communists went out to the countryside to organize peasants to take the harvested crop to their own threshing floor and make the two-thirds share a reality. The movement began in North Bengal and gradually spread throughout the rest of the province, Role of Women in Tebhaga movement Rani Mitra Dasgupta, Manikuntala Sen, Renu Chakravartty and other women who had worked as active volunteers of the Mahila Atmaraksha Samiti (Women's Self-Defense League) during the famine years wanted to bring rural women into this movement. Although the party was lukewarm in its support for this idea and the male peasants suspicious, they found rural women ready to work with them. At first women played a subsidiary role, helping harvest the crops, cooking food for the leaders, acting as lookouts, and sounding the alarm to alert their colleagues to danger. As police repression became more brutal and the Communist Party, unprepared for armed struggle, withdrew from active leadership, women formed their own militia, the 'nanbabini.' Manikuntala Sen and Renu Chakravartty told their leaders women's problems had to be addressed along with problems of economic exploitation and political oppression. First and foremost, meeting times had to be convenient for women. Second, if women were going to play a prominent role in the movement, something had to be done to free them from household work. Third, something had to be done about the women's complaints that their husbands beat them, drank too much, and took away the money they earned through petty trade. It was clear, that the central idea of women's welfare revolved round the attainment of fundamental rights, dignity and respect for women. But male Communist Party of India (CPI) leaders wanted peasant women to be "good comrades" and put the struggle above personal concerns. CPI women argued unsuccessfully for a program that would encourage peasant women to defy their husbands. Bimala Maji, a widow from the Midnapur District, became a successful organizer of women. She had worked with Manikuntala Sen during the famine to encourage destitute women to form self-help committees. These women's committees obtained paddy, on trust, from landlords, husked, sold it, and kept the profits after repaying the landlords. During the Tebhaga campaign the Communist Party sent Bimala to Nandigram to recruit women for the movement. At first women were reluctant to join but before long Bimala had mobilized women to demand tebhaga and collect the harvest. Pursued by the police, Bimala went underground. As the police arrested Communist Party and Kisan Sabha leaders, Bimala had to assume more and more responsibility. It was she who made the decision and led peasants to destroy the threshing floors of the jotedars (rich peasants) and sell the landlords' share of the harvest. After an extensive search, the police captured her and kept her in a cage for a month until she was tried for 140 offenses. She was detained in prison for two and a half years. There were many women like Bimala Maji and the history of the Tebhaga movement is especially important for a history of women in India. The Communist cadres and Kisan Sabha were content to have women play a secondary role in the movement. Women helped harvest the paddy, carried it to the threshing floor, and sounded the alarm when enemies approached. As the movement became more militant and police repression more violent, the leaders of the movement lagged behind their followers. This was when peasant women stepped forward to play a significant role and formed the naribini. Thus there was a strong connection between the increasingly spontaneous character of the uprising and the more and more prominent role played by women. The Tebhaga Movement was an important phenomenon in the pages of history, because it was the women gave the movement its momentum. 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After the end of the Second World War, there were a number of educated women who were participating in the various peasant rebellions that were springing up all over the country. The legacy of female nationalists, taking part in the Quit India Movement and accepting prison-sentence for the nation, had ignited the flame of protest in the hearts of women. Thus there was seen the active participation of women in these movements and rebellions of which the Tebhaga movement was one. Origin of Tebhaga movement In September of 1946 the Bengal Provincial Kisan Sabha (Peasant's Organization) called for a mass struggle among sharecroppers to keep 'tebhaga' (two-thirds) of the harvest. Young Communists went out to the countryside to organize peasants to take the harvested crop to their own threshing floor and make the two-thirds share a reality. The movement began in North Bengal and gradually spread throughout the rest of the province, Role of Women in Tebhaga movement Rani Mitra Dasgupta, Manikuntala Sen, Renu Chakravartty and other women who had worked as active volunteers of the Mahila Atmaraksha Samiti (Women's Self-Defense League) during the famine years wanted to bring rural women into this movement. Although the party was lukewarm in its support for this idea and the male peasants suspicious, they found rural women ready to work with them. At first women played a subsidiary role, helping harvest the crops, cooking food for the leaders, acting as lookouts, and sounding the alarm to alert their colleagues to danger. As police repression became more brutal and the Communist Party, unprepared for armed struggle, withdrew from active leadership, women formed their own militia, the 'nanbabini.' Manikuntala Sen and Renu Chakravartty told their leaders women's problems had to be addressed along with problems of economic exploitation and political oppression. First and foremost, meeting times had to be convenient for women. Second, if women were going to play a prominent role in the movement, something had to be done to free them from household work. Third, something had to be done about the women's complaints that their husbands beat them, drank too much, and took away the money they earned through petty trade. It was clear, that the central idea of women's welfare revolved round the attainment of fundamental rights, dignity and respect for women. But male Communist Party of India (CPI) leaders wanted peasant women to be "good comrades" and put the struggle above personal concerns. CPI women argued unsuccessfully for a program that would encourage peasant women to defy their husbands. Bimala Maji, a widow from the Midnapur District, became a successful organizer of women. She had worked with Manikuntala Sen during the famine to encourage destitute women to form self-help committees. These women's committees obtained paddy, on trust, from landlords, husked, sold it, and kept the profits after repaying the landlords. During the Tebhaga campaign the Communist Party sent Bimala to Nandigram to recruit women for the movement. At first women were reluctant to join but before long Bimala had mobilized women to demand tebhaga and collect the harvest. Pursued by the police, Bimala went underground. As the police arrested Communist Party and Kisan Sabha leaders, Bimala had to assume more and more responsibility. It was she who made the decision and led peasants to destroy the threshing floors of the jotedars (rich peasants) and sell the landlords' share of the harvest. After an extensive search, the police captured her and kept her in a cage for a month until she was tried for 140 offenses. She was detained in prison for two and a half years. There were many women like Bimala Maji and the history of the Tebhaga movement is especially important for a history of women in India. The Communist cadres and Kisan Sabha were content to have women play a secondary role in the movement. Women helped harvest the paddy, carried it to the threshing floor, and sounded the alarm when enemies approached. As the movement became more militant and police repression more violent, the leaders of the movement lagged behind their followers. This was when peasant women stepped forward to play a significant role and formed the naribini. Thus there was a strong connection between the increasingly spontaneous character of the uprising and the more and more prominent role played by women. The Tebhaga Movement was an important phenomenon in the pages of history, because it was the women gave the movement its momentum. It proved beyond doubt the efficacy of a group of united women fighting for a just cause.	994	ENGLISH	1
For his homework, Larson was asked to find out which of his 30 classmates had a television in their rooms and record their gender. Larson did not record his own data. His results are given below. 20 of his classmates do not have a television in their room. Five of the girls have a television in their room. 13 of Larson’s classmates are boys. Part a) Use Larson’s results to complete the frequency tree. A frequency tree is similar to a tree diagram, except instead of writing in the probabilities, we write the frequencies. Larson had a total of 30 classmates. Therefore, 30 goes in the first box. Of these 30 classmates, we were told that 20 do not have a television in their room. To calculate the number of classmates who do have a television, we need to subtract 20 from 30. 30 minus 20 is equal to 10. Therefore, 10 of his classmates have a television in their room. We were also told that five of the girls have a television in their room. This means that five out of the 10 students with a TV are female. 10 minus five is equal to five. Therefore, there must be five male students with a TV in their room. Finally, we were told that 13 of Larson’s classmates are boys. To work out the number of males who did not have a TV in their room, we need to subtract five from 13. This is equal to eight. There are eight males that do not have a TV. As there were 13 boys, there must be a total of 17 girls as 30 minus 13 is equal to 17. 17 minus five is equal to 12. Therefore, there are 12 females who do not have a TV. We can check these numbers by ensuring that all the answers in each step of the frequency tree add up to 30. In this case, 10 plus 20 is equal to 30. And also, five plus five plus eight plus 12 is equal to 30. We, therefore, have a completed frequency tree for Larsson’s results. The second part of the question says the following. One of the classmates who has a television in their room is chosen at random. Part b) What is the probability that they are female? There were a total of 10 people that had a television in their room. Of these, five were male and five were female. This means that the probability of one of those 10 students being female is five out of 10 or five tenths. This can be simplified to one-half by dividing the numerator and denominator by five. Remember with fractions, whatever you do to the top, you must do to the bottom. If one of the classmates with a television is chosen at random, the probability that they are female is one-half. This could also be written as 0.5 or 50 percent.	<urn:uuid:58f9c312-3795-43c0-b550-8da06cca5ce4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.nagwa.com/en/videos/968195359847/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00259.warc.gz	en	0.989867	581	3.84375	4	[ 0.0022998936474323273, -0.16878995299339294, 0.08500020205974579, -0.49108999967575073, -0.032621145248413086, 0.4387131333351135, -0.1963602751493454, 0.535210132598877, 0.6340710520744324, 0.3484918773174286, 0.34337103366851807, -0.41080528497695923, 0.2926822006702423, -0.1401151567697525, -0.16482818126678467, 0.23163734376430511, -0.21603237092494965, -0.1779930293560028, -0.5844374299049377, 0.19760729372501373, 0.4094375967979431, -0.37100502848625183, -0.014206785708665848, -0.3520910441875458, 0.7443482875823975, -0.036451514810323715, -0.17742565274238586, -0.6431201696395874, -0.392728328704834, -1.6770946979522705, 0.14083990454673767, 0.08428043127059937, 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Larson did not record his own data. His results are given below. 20 of his classmates do not have a television in their room. Five of the girls have a television in their room. 13 of Larson’s classmates are boys. Part a) Use Larson’s results to complete the frequency tree. A frequency tree is similar to a tree diagram, except instead of writing in the probabilities, we write the frequencies. Larson had a total of 30 classmates. Therefore, 30 goes in the first box. Of these 30 classmates, we were told that 20 do not have a television in their room. To calculate the number of classmates who do have a television, we need to subtract 20 from 30. 30 minus 20 is equal to 10. Therefore, 10 of his classmates have a television in their room. We were also told that five of the girls have a television in their room. This means that five out of the 10 students with a TV are female. 10 minus five is equal to five. Therefore, there must be five male students with a TV in their room. Finally, we were told that 13 of Larson’s classmates are boys. To work out the number of males who did not have a TV in their room, we need to subtract five from 13. This is equal to eight. There are eight males that do not have a TV. As there were 13 boys, there must be a total of 17 girls as 30 minus 13 is equal to 17. 17 minus five is equal to 12. Therefore, there are 12 females who do not have a TV. We can check these numbers by ensuring that all the answers in each step of the frequency tree add up to 30. In this case, 10 plus 20 is equal to 30. And also, five plus five plus eight plus 12 is equal to 30. We, therefore, have a completed frequency tree for Larsson’s results. The second part of the question says the following. One of the classmates who has a television in their room is chosen at random. Part b) What is the probability that they are female? There were a total of 10 people that had a television in their room. Of these, five were male and five were female. This means that the probability of one of those 10 students being female is five out of 10 or five tenths. This can be simplified to one-half by dividing the numerator and denominator by five. Remember with fractions, whatever you do to the top, you must do to the bottom. If one of the classmates with a television is chosen at random, the probability that they are female is one-half. This could also be written as 0.5 or 50 percent.	632	ENGLISH	1
Our Nig Or, Sketches From the Life of a Free Black, in a Two-Story White House was the name of the novel. It was the first ever published by an African American on the North American continent. In it, Harriet Wilson told her own story: of her mother’s abandonment, of her indentured servitude to a cruel mistress, of her eventual decision to fight for herself. The novel was little noticed until 1983, when scholar Henry Louis Gates established her identity. The book, wrote Gates, …stands as a hallmark of literary history as the first novel published by an African American woman in the United States; and it subtly combines compelling storytelling with unflinching indictments of Northern anti-black racism.” Harriet Adams was born on March 15, 1825 in Milford, N.H., to Margaret Ann Smith, who was white, and Joshua Green, an African American hooper of barrels. Her father died when she was young and her mother abandoned her when she was six at the farm of Nehemiah Hayward Jr., in Milford. As was customary, the court bound the orphaned child to the Hayward family as an indentured servant. Scholars believe Our Nig is a fictionalized account of her abuse by Mrs. Hayward and her daughter. They mocked her, beat her and forced to do hard physical farm labor. The Haywards had connections to the abolitionists in town and to the Hutchinson Family Singers. In Our Nig, Harriet Wilson vehemently denounced Northern racism and hypocrisy. But she also told a story about a young girl who learned to fight back. The crucial scene comes in Chapter 10, when her character ‘Frado’ is told to fetch wood by her mistress, ‘Mrs. Bellmont.’ She was sent for wood, and not returning as soon as Mrs. B. calculated, she followed her, and, snatching from the pile a stick, raised it over her. “Stop!” shouted Frado, “strike me, and I’ll never work a mite more for you;” and throwing down what she had gathered, stood like one who feels the stirring of free and independent thoughts. By this unexpected demonstration, her mistress, in amazement, dropped her weapon, desisting from her purpose of chastisement. Frado walked towards the house, her mistress following with the wood she herself was sent after. She did not know, before, that she had a power to ward off assault. Harriet Wilson turned 18 in 1853 and was finally allowed to leave the Haywards. She quickly married a man named Thomas Wilson, who claimed to be a fugitive slave. She had a child, George Mason Wilson, but his father soon abandoned them. He admitted he made up the fugitive slave story to gain support from abolitionists. Harriet worked as a seamstress and a house servant, and she sold a hair restoration product, but she couldn’t earn enough to take care of her young son. She left him in the Poor Farm. And she wrote her novel, hoping it would support them. In the preface to Our Nig she wrote: Deserted by kindred, disabled by failing health, I am forced to some experiment which shall aid me in maintaining myself and child without extinguishing this feeble life. A few weeks after she copyrighted the novel,[s2If !is_user_logged_in()] To Continue Reading . . . it was published anonymously by George C. Rand and Avery. It faded into oblivion, possibly because its indictment of Northern racism offended abolitionists. George died at the age of seven. Hattie Wilson gave up trying to earn a living in Milford. She moved to Boston, where she became a spiritualist, communicating with the dead. She was known as ‘the colored medium.’ She gave lectures, either entranced or in her normal state, at camp meetings, theaters and in private homes. She spoke, often humorously, about her life experiences, about childhood education and about labor reform. She traveled to Chicago as a delegate to the American Association of Spiritualists convention. From 1879 to 1897, she was a housekeeper at a boardinghouse at what is now the corner of Berkeley and Tremont streets. She also worked as a healer and nurse. She died at age 75 at the Quincy Hospital in Quincy, Mass. 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It was the first ever published by an African American on the North American continent. In it, Harriet Wilson told her own story: of her mother’s abandonment, of her indentured servitude to a cruel mistress, of her eventual decision to fight for herself. The novel was little noticed until 1983, when scholar Henry Louis Gates established her identity. The book, wrote Gates, …stands as a hallmark of literary history as the first novel published by an African American woman in the United States; and it subtly combines compelling storytelling with unflinching indictments of Northern anti-black racism.” Harriet Adams was born on March 15, 1825 in Milford, N.H., to Margaret Ann Smith, who was white, and Joshua Green, an African American hooper of barrels. Her father died when she was young and her mother abandoned her when she was six at the farm of Nehemiah Hayward Jr., in Milford. As was customary, the court bound the orphaned child to the Hayward family as an indentured servant. Scholars believe Our Nig is a fictionalized account of her abuse by Mrs. Hayward and her daughter. They mocked her, beat her and forced to do hard physical farm labor. The Haywards had connections to the abolitionists in town and to the Hutchinson Family Singers. In Our Nig, Harriet Wilson vehemently denounced Northern racism and hypocrisy. But she also told a story about a young girl who learned to fight back. The crucial scene comes in Chapter 10, when her character ‘Frado’ is told to fetch wood by her mistress, ‘Mrs. Bellmont.’ She was sent for wood, and not returning as soon as Mrs. B. calculated, she followed her, and, snatching from the pile a stick, raised it over her. “Stop!” shouted Frado, “strike me, and I’ll never work a mite more for you;” and throwing down what she had gathered, stood like one who feels the stirring of free and independent thoughts. By this unexpected demonstration, her mistress, in amazement, dropped her weapon, desisting from her purpose of chastisement. Frado walked towards the house, her mistress following with the wood she herself was sent after. She did not know, before, that she had a power to ward off assault. Harriet Wilson turned 18 in 1853 and was finally allowed to leave the Haywards. She quickly married a man named Thomas Wilson, who claimed to be a fugitive slave. She had a child, George Mason Wilson, but his father soon abandoned them. He admitted he made up the fugitive slave story to gain support from abolitionists. Harriet worked as a seamstress and a house servant, and she sold a hair restoration product, but she couldn’t earn enough to take care of her young son. She left him in the Poor Farm. And she wrote her novel, hoping it would support them. In the preface to Our Nig she wrote: Deserted by kindred, disabled by failing health, I am forced to some experiment which shall aid me in maintaining myself and child without extinguishing this feeble life. A few weeks after she copyrighted the novel,[s2If !is_user_logged_in()] To Continue Reading . . . it was published anonymously by George C. Rand and Avery. It faded into oblivion, possibly because its indictment of Northern racism offended abolitionists. George died at the age of seven. Hattie Wilson gave up trying to earn a living in Milford. She moved to Boston, where she became a spiritualist, communicating with the dead. She was known as ‘the colored medium.’ She gave lectures, either entranced or in her normal state, at camp meetings, theaters and in private homes. She spoke, often humorously, about her life experiences, about childhood education and about labor reform. She traveled to Chicago as a delegate to the American Association of Spiritualists convention. From 1879 to 1897, she was a housekeeper at a boardinghouse at what is now the corner of Berkeley and Tremont streets. She also worked as a healer and nurse. She died at age 75 at the Quincy Hospital in Quincy, Mass. In 2006, The Harriet Wilson Project raised money to create a bronze sculpture of Harriet Wilson in Milford, N.H.[/s2If]	941	ENGLISH	1
A St. Louis history tour wouldn’t be complete without an introduction to the important role the city has played in America’s musical history. A great place to start is the Scott Joplin State Historic Site, in the former home of the legendary Ragtime composer. Though he only lived here for a few years, this is where he composed some of his most famous pieces including “The Entertainer,” and helped to set off an international Ragtime craze. Even if you’ve never heard of ragtime, Joplin is an interesting American figure as one of the first American musical celebrities and one of the first in a long line of African American musicians to make a big impact on the evolution of American music and, by extension, popular music around the world. At the Scott Joplin House, you can explore his life and times and “play” a real player piano. Scott Joplin was born in 1868 in Texarkana, Texas and showed musical talent at a young age. His father was a formerly enslaved man from North Carolina who played the violin and his mother was a free-born woman from Kentucky who sang and played the banjo. His music teacher was a German Jewish immigrant who made a living teaching music lessons to wealthier families but taught Joplin folk, classical, and opera for free. By the time Joplin was 16, he was singing in a vocal quartet, playing piano, and teaching guitar and mandolin. After receiving a college degree in music and committing to a career as a professional musician, Joplin found that paid jobs for black performers were limited. Playing piano in saloons, brothels, and inexpensive restaurants around the Midwest, he found his way to Sedalia, Missouri, (between St. Louis and Kansas City) in the mid-1890s. At that time the St. Louis area was a popular first stop for African Americans moving north to escape segregation in the South. The mixing of country and urban culture made it a hotbed for new musical styles. Ragtime began here in St. Louis and likely evolved from the Cakewalk, a style of dance and music originated by enslaved people on Southern plantations. Both the Cakewalk and Ragtime stood out from other music at the time because of a feature called “syncopation,” which is when a musician stresses notes that fall on beats that are not usually stressed. Though syncopation can be found in both African and European musical traditions (such as jigs), at this time in the US it was strongly associated with the music played by black musicians in saloons and brothels, sometimes called “jig piano.” Ragtime piano-players typically played a baseline with a steady rhythm with the left hand and right-hand part with a syncopated or “ragged” rhythm. Joplin was in St. Louis for the 1893 World’s Fair and noticed that although African American musicians were not prominently featured at the fair, their music in the saloons and brothels nearby was extremely popular with visitors. To many Americans at the time, Ragtime sounded, as described by the St. Louis Dispatch, like “a veritable call of the wild, which mightily stirred the pulses of city-bred people.” Before the era of sound recording, the music industry sold sheet music to professional and amateur musicians. Though music publishing has been around since the Baroque era, it became a big business in the US in the late 19th century as copyright laws were better enforced and published companies tried new marketing techniques such as “plugging,” paying musicians to perform songs so that the songs would become popular. Music publishers were starting to notice Ragtime and Joplin began composing with publishing in mind. While Ragtime performance was often improvisational, Joplin’s pieces were meant to be played as written. In Sedalia, he met John Stillwell Stark, an entrepreneur who would publish his first big hit, “Maple Leaf Rag,” in 1899. That success allowed Joplin to move to this house in St. Louis with his wife Belle. Here he wrote several more hits, including “The Entertainer,” that helped to start a Ragtime music and dance craze in the US and Europe. Joplin’s music was also produced as player piano rolls, and starting in about 1906, as phonograph recordings. The Ragtime craze only lasted a few years, but it paved the way for the commercial success of two much bigger genres: Jazz and the Blues. St. Louis plays an important role in the stories of each of these forms that began in African American subcultures, made use of syncopation, and sounded “wild” to mainstream listeners. Jazz and the Blues, in turn, contributed the musical foundations for R&B, Rock & Roll, and Hip Hop. (In Rock, the syncopation is called the “backbeat.”) Shortly after moving to St. Louis, the Joplins had a baby girl who died when she was only a few months old. The couple divorced a few years later. In 1904, Joplin married his second wife Freddie, who passed away only a few months later. Joplin continued writing ragtime but also wrote music in other forms, including two operas. In 1907, he moved to New York to try to get the operas produced. In the 1970s, Joplin’s music had a resurgence in popularity when it was used in the soundtrack for the popular movie The Sting starring Paul Newman and Robert Redford that takes place in the 1930s. A version of “The Entertainer” recorded for the movie by Marvin Hamlisch hit #1 on the pop charts more than 70 years after Joplin composed it. In 1984, the owner of Joplin’s former house donated it to the state to become a historic park. Visitors can explore exhibits about Joplin’s life and St. Louis at the turn of the 20th century. These include the “Rosebud Café,” a replica of a real bar and gaming club from that time. 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A great place to start is the Scott Joplin State Historic Site, in the former home of the legendary Ragtime composer. Though he only lived here for a few years, this is where he composed some of his most famous pieces including “The Entertainer,” and helped to set off an international Ragtime craze. Even if you’ve never heard of ragtime, Joplin is an interesting American figure as one of the first American musical celebrities and one of the first in a long line of African American musicians to make a big impact on the evolution of American music and, by extension, popular music around the world. At the Scott Joplin House, you can explore his life and times and “play” a real player piano. Scott Joplin was born in 1868 in Texarkana, Texas and showed musical talent at a young age. His father was a formerly enslaved man from North Carolina who played the violin and his mother was a free-born woman from Kentucky who sang and played the banjo. His music teacher was a German Jewish immigrant who made a living teaching music lessons to wealthier families but taught Joplin folk, classical, and opera for free. By the time Joplin was 16, he was singing in a vocal quartet, playing piano, and teaching guitar and mandolin. After receiving a college degree in music and committing to a career as a professional musician, Joplin found that paid jobs for black performers were limited. Playing piano in saloons, brothels, and inexpensive restaurants around the Midwest, he found his way to Sedalia, Missouri, (between St. Louis and Kansas City) in the mid-1890s. At that time the St. Louis area was a popular first stop for African Americans moving north to escape segregation in the South. The mixing of country and urban culture made it a hotbed for new musical styles. Ragtime began here in St. Louis and likely evolved from the Cakewalk, a style of dance and music originated by enslaved people on Southern plantations. Both the Cakewalk and Ragtime stood out from other music at the time because of a feature called “syncopation,” which is when a musician stresses notes that fall on beats that are not usually stressed. Though syncopation can be found in both African and European musical traditions (such as jigs), at this time in the US it was strongly associated with the music played by black musicians in saloons and brothels, sometimes called “jig piano.” Ragtime piano-players typically played a baseline with a steady rhythm with the left hand and right-hand part with a syncopated or “ragged” rhythm. Joplin was in St. Louis for the 1893 World’s Fair and noticed that although African American musicians were not prominently featured at the fair, their music in the saloons and brothels nearby was extremely popular with visitors. To many Americans at the time, Ragtime sounded, as described by the St. Louis Dispatch, like “a veritable call of the wild, which mightily stirred the pulses of city-bred people.” Before the era of sound recording, the music industry sold sheet music to professional and amateur musicians. Though music publishing has been around since the Baroque era, it became a big business in the US in the late 19th century as copyright laws were better enforced and published companies tried new marketing techniques such as “plugging,” paying musicians to perform songs so that the songs would become popular. Music publishers were starting to notice Ragtime and Joplin began composing with publishing in mind. While Ragtime performance was often improvisational, Joplin’s pieces were meant to be played as written. In Sedalia, he met John Stillwell Stark, an entrepreneur who would publish his first big hit, “Maple Leaf Rag,” in 1899. That success allowed Joplin to move to this house in St. Louis with his wife Belle. Here he wrote several more hits, including “The Entertainer,” that helped to start a Ragtime music and dance craze in the US and Europe. Joplin’s music was also produced as player piano rolls, and starting in about 1906, as phonograph recordings. The Ragtime craze only lasted a few years, but it paved the way for the commercial success of two much bigger genres: Jazz and the Blues. St. Louis plays an important role in the stories of each of these forms that began in African American subcultures, made use of syncopation, and sounded “wild” to mainstream listeners. Jazz and the Blues, in turn, contributed the musical foundations for R&B, Rock & Roll, and Hip Hop. (In Rock, the syncopation is called the “backbeat.”) Shortly after moving to St. Louis, the Joplins had a baby girl who died when she was only a few months old. The couple divorced a few years later. In 1904, Joplin married his second wife Freddie, who passed away only a few months later. Joplin continued writing ragtime but also wrote music in other forms, including two operas. In 1907, he moved to New York to try to get the operas produced. In the 1970s, Joplin’s music had a resurgence in popularity when it was used in the soundtrack for the popular movie The Sting starring Paul Newman and Robert Redford that takes place in the 1930s. A version of “The Entertainer” recorded for the movie by Marvin Hamlisch hit #1 on the pop charts more than 70 years after Joplin composed it. In 1984, the owner of Joplin’s former house donated it to the state to become a historic park. Visitors can explore exhibits about Joplin’s life and St. Louis at the turn of the 20th century. These include the “Rosebud Café,” a replica of a real bar and gaming club from that time. Cover Photo: Kevin Staff, CC BY-SA 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons.	1,294	ENGLISH	1
A dollar is a type of currency. Many countries have named their money the dollar, so it is important to say which dollar is being talked about. The symbol for the dollar is a capital letter S, pierced by one or two vertical lines: $. The dollar is named after the thaler. The thaler was a large silver coin first made in the year 1518. The thaler named after the Joachimsthal (Joachim's valley) mine in Bohemia (Thal means valley in German). The later Spanish Peso was the same size and was often called "Spanish dollar" and the similar coin of the Dutch Republic was called “lion dollar”. In the 18th century it became a world currency. Many national currencies were originally Spanish dollars including the ones now called dollar or peso and the Japanese yen, Indian rupee and Chinese Renminbi.	<urn:uuid:35c4eedd-90e3-460d-8e88-1f5fe772607e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://simple.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dollar	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00348.warc.gz	en	0.983941	183	3.625	4	[ -0.1564832329750061, 0.15143544971942902, -0.24371680617332458, 0.1062084212899208, -0.09909699857234955, 0.02661001682281494, 0.28376394510269165, 0.26484498381614685, 0.21719062328338623, -0.03007742203772068, 0.19822148978710175, -0.4100285470485687, 0.15507872402668, 0.0441838838160038, -0.012153493240475655, -0.03131045773625374, -0.2800654470920563, -0.16032081842422485, -0.741584837436676, 0.5482590198516846, 1.1700201034545898, -0.29362475872039795, 0.13021133840084076, -0.4036761522293091, 0.6429257392883301, 0.3649548590183258, 0.014338660053908825, 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Many countries have named their money the dollar, so it is important to say which dollar is being talked about. The symbol for the dollar is a capital letter S, pierced by one or two vertical lines: $. The dollar is named after the thaler. The thaler was a large silver coin first made in the year 1518. The thaler named after the Joachimsthal (Joachim's valley) mine in Bohemia (Thal means valley in German). The later Spanish Peso was the same size and was often called "Spanish dollar" and the similar coin of the Dutch Republic was called “lion dollar”. In the 18th century it became a world currency. Many national currencies were originally Spanish dollars including the ones now called dollar or peso and the Japanese yen, Indian rupee and Chinese Renminbi.	182	ENGLISH	1
Andrew Jackson (March 15, 1767 - June 8, 1845) was the seventh American President. He was in office from March 4, 1829 to March 4, 1837. Andrew Jackson was a prominent politician and army general during his time on Earth, he led the American army to victory against the creek Indians at the battle of Horseshoe Bend (1814), and he also led his troops to defeat the British army at the Battle of New Orleans (1815). Since, he did not hail from a distinguished family, Andrew Jackson worked so hard to succeed as a country lawyer. He owned about 300 slaves during his life time. Andrew Jackson remains one of the few American President ever to appear on the US postage more than the usual two or three times.	<urn:uuid:2d2bbc19-6658-43dd-9e81-5734736d971c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://inbazmedia.blogspot.com/2012/12/andrew-jackson.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00127.warc.gz	en	0.992756	156	3.5	4	[ -0.0891995057463646, 0.3785642385482788, 0.7174539566040039, 0.11853161454200745, 0.1981649100780487, 0.3967766761779785, -0.0207890085875988, -0.0295637845993042, -0.020718732848763466, -0.16175994277000427, -0.09591227769851685, -0.22755639255046844, -0.08069349080324173, 0.13333117961883545, -0.41949570178985596, 0.0028677184600383043, -0.5567898154258728, 0.38937684893608093, -0.48623621463775635, 0.1347096562385559, 0.4619459807872772, 0.24995219707489014, -0.37036919593811035, -0.3558022081851959, 0.2984718382358551, 0.47725504636764526, 0.010556966066360474, 0.05144250765442848, 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He was in office from March 4, 1829 to March 4, 1837. Andrew Jackson was a prominent politician and army general during his time on Earth, he led the American army to victory against the creek Indians at the battle of Horseshoe Bend (1814), and he also led his troops to defeat the British army at the Battle of New Orleans (1815). Since, he did not hail from a distinguished family, Andrew Jackson worked so hard to succeed as a country lawyer. He owned about 300 slaves during his life time. Andrew Jackson remains one of the few American President ever to appear on the US postage more than the usual two or three times.	180	ENGLISH	1
At Yosemite National Park in California, granitelike towers loom over the park’s main valley. But one monolith stands out: Half Dome, which, with its curved, peeling layers, looks a bit like an onion. Until recently, experts weren’t sure what caused these layers to peel and fracture, but new research in the journal Nature Communications suggests hot days are to blame. High temps cause the stone to expand and sometimes fracture into layers. The event that helped inspire the Nature Communications paper came after a hot summer’s day at a different, much smaller dome near Yosemite. There, Scott Lewis, an engineering geologist and one of the paper’s authors, went to assess a dam damaged by such a fracturing event. On site, he witnessed something few ever have. In His Own Words ... Myself and two of my colleagues went up to see what was going on. There were a number of cracks on this granite dome, and there was a crack in the dam; we were all discussing what the repairs might be and that sort of thing. One of the guys said, “Hey, besides these cracks up on top of the dome, we noticed there are some cracks down there on the side.” The dome is flat on top, and it steepens on the sides that go down to a creek, about 50 feet from the dome’s top. There was a little ledge, 5 feet above the creek level or so. So the three of us went down on this ledge. I leaned down to put my eyeball in front of the crack, and, just as I did, a second cracking event occurred. I’ve been around a lot of blasting, and this was a big blast. It was really loud, and very, very guttural. It was a very strong, almost-explosive type of event; it blew air and dust into my eye, but I was OK. And then we looked up, and we could see dust and pieces of rock flying in the air up above us. My first thought was, “Get the heck out of here.” We didn’t wanna get squished by rocks. We skedaddled out of there as fast as we could. We got up on top, and the rock was under significant strain, and it was actually popping and cracking and making noise, and little pieces were popping off above us. It was exciting — it was pretty much geology in action. [This article originally appeared in print as "Eyewitness to Geology"]	<urn:uuid:8da7726e-c250-4fb5-8397-f9460b9d87be>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/a-geologist-witnesses-firsthand-the-processes-that-shaped-half-dome	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00037.warc.gz	en	0.980482	534	3.59375	4	[ -0.2849004864692688, -0.065818652510643, 0.559211790561676, 0.061103008687496185, -0.13414299488067627, 0.336129367351532, 0.18388065695762634, 0.14552515745162964, -0.28897595405578613, -0.026498055085539818, -0.36007413268089294, -0.3304789662361145, 0.5886326432228088, 0.39654606580734253, 0.2255219966173172, 0.424251526594162, -0.3268016278743744, -0.1108393669128418, -0.48652955889701843, 0.14380823075771332, 0.4774237275123596, 0.04220268875360489, -0.1641153246164322, -0.09442434459924698, -0.019737418740987778, 0.35162508487701416, -0.6763482093811035, 0.2705311179161072, 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But one monolith stands out: Half Dome, which, with its curved, peeling layers, looks a bit like an onion. Until recently, experts weren’t sure what caused these layers to peel and fracture, but new research in the journal Nature Communications suggests hot days are to blame. High temps cause the stone to expand and sometimes fracture into layers. The event that helped inspire the Nature Communications paper came after a hot summer’s day at a different, much smaller dome near Yosemite. There, Scott Lewis, an engineering geologist and one of the paper’s authors, went to assess a dam damaged by such a fracturing event. On site, he witnessed something few ever have. In His Own Words ... Myself and two of my colleagues went up to see what was going on. There were a number of cracks on this granite dome, and there was a crack in the dam; we were all discussing what the repairs might be and that sort of thing. One of the guys said, “Hey, besides these cracks up on top of the dome, we noticed there are some cracks down there on the side.” The dome is flat on top, and it steepens on the sides that go down to a creek, about 50 feet from the dome’s top. There was a little ledge, 5 feet above the creek level or so. So the three of us went down on this ledge. I leaned down to put my eyeball in front of the crack, and, just as I did, a second cracking event occurred. I’ve been around a lot of blasting, and this was a big blast. It was really loud, and very, very guttural. It was a very strong, almost-explosive type of event; it blew air and dust into my eye, but I was OK. And then we looked up, and we could see dust and pieces of rock flying in the air up above us. My first thought was, “Get the heck out of here.” We didn’t wanna get squished by rocks. We skedaddled out of there as fast as we could. We got up on top, and the rock was under significant strain, and it was actually popping and cracking and making noise, and little pieces were popping off above us. It was exciting — it was pretty much geology in action. [This article originally appeared in print as "Eyewitness to Geology"]	509	ENGLISH	1
The Territory of Mississippi was organized in 1798, and Winthrop Sargeant appointed Governor. By the ordinance of 1787, the people of the Northwest Territory were entitled to elect Representatives to a Territorial Legislature whenever it contained 5,000 males of full age. Before the close of the year 1798, the Territory had this number, and members to a Territorial Legislature were soon after chosen. In the year 1799, William H. Harrison was chosen as the first delegate to Congress from the Northwest Territory. In 1800, the Territory of Indiana was formed, and the next year, William H. Harrison appointed Governor. This Territory comprised the present States of Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin and Michigan, which vast country then had less than 6,000 whites, and those mainly of French origin. On April 30, 1802, Congress passed an act authorizing a convention, to form a constitution for Ohio. This convention met at Chillicothe in the succeeding November, and, on the 29th of that month, a constitution of State Government was ratified and signed, by which act Ohio became one of the States of the Federal Union. In October 1802, the whole western country was thrown into a ferment by the suspension of the American right of depositing goods and produce at New Orleans, guaranteed by the treaty of 1795, with Spain. The whole commerce of the west was struck at in a vital point, and the treaty evidently violated. On February 25, 1803, the port was opened to provisions, on paying a duty, and in April following, by orders of the King of Spain, the right of deposit was restored. After the treaty of 1763, Louisiana remained in possession of Spain until 1803, when it was again restored to France by the terms of a secret article in the treaty of St. lldefonso concluded with Spain in 1800. France held but brief possession; on the 30th of April, she sold her claim to the United States for the consideration of fifteen millions of dollars. On the 20th of the succeeding December, General Wilkinson and Claiborne took possession of the country for the United States and entered New Orleans at the head of the American troops. On January 11, 1805, Congress established the Territory of Michigan and appointed William Hull, Governor. This same year, Detroit was destroyed by fire. The town occupied only about two acres, completely covered with buildings and combustible materials, excepting the narrow intervals of fourteen or fifteen feet used as streets or lanes, and the whole was environed with a very strong and secure defense of tall and solid pickets. At this period, the conspiracy of Aaron Burr began to agitate the western country. In December 1806, a fleet of boats, with arms, provisions, and ammunition, belonging to the confederates of Burr, were seized, upon the Muskingum, by agents of the United States, which proved a fatal blow to the project. In 1809, the Territory of Illinois was formed from the western part of the Indiana Territory, and named for the powerful tribe which once had occupied its soil. The Indians, who, since the Treaty of Greenville, had been at peace, about the year 1810, began to commit aggressions upon the inhabitants of the west, under the leadership of Tecumseh. The next year, they were defeated by General Harrison, at the battle of Tippecanoe, in Indiana. This year was also distinguished by the voyage, from Pittsburgh to New Orleans, of the steamboat New Orleans, the first steamer ever launched upon the western waters. In June 1812, the United States declared war against Great Britain. Of this war, the west was the principal theater. Its opening scenes were as gloomy and disastrous to the American arms as its close was brilliant and triumphant. At the close of the war, the population of the Territories of Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan was less than 50,000. But, from that time onward, the tide of emigration again went forward with unprecedented rapidity. On April 19, 1816, Indiana was admitted into the Union, and Illinois, December 3, 1818. The remainder of the Northwest Territory, as then organized, was included in the Territory of Michigan, of which, that section west of Lake Michigan, bore the name of the Huron District. This part of the west increased so slowly that, by the census of 1830, the Territory of Michigan contained, exclusive of the Huron District, but 28,000 souls, while that had only a population of 3,640. Emigration began to set in more strongly to the Territory of Michigan in consequence of steam navigation having been successfully introduced upon the great lakes of the west. The first steamboat upon these immense inland seas was the Walk-in-the-Water, which, in 1819, went as far as Mackinaw; yet, it was not until 1826, that a steamer rode the waters of Lake Michigan, and six years more had elapsed before one had penetrated as far as Chicago, Illinois The year 1832 was signalized by three important events in the history of the west — the first appearance of the Asiatic Cholera, the Great Flood in the Ohio River, and Black Hawk War. The west has suffered serious drawbacks, in its progress, from inefficient systems of banking. One bank frequently was made the basis of another, and that of a third, and so on throughout the country. Some three or four, shrewd agents or directors, in establishing a bank, would collect a few thousand in specie, that had been honestly paid in, and then make up the remainder of the capital with the bills or stock from some neighboring bank. Thus, so intimate was the connection of each bank with others, that, when one or two gave way, they all went down together in one common ruin. In 1804, the year preceding Louisiana Purchase, Congress formed from part of it, the “Territory of Orleans,” which was admitted into the Union in 1812, as the State of Louisiana. In 1805, after the Territory of Orleans was erected, the remaining part of the purchase from the French was formed into the Territory of Louisiana, of which the old French town of St. Louis was the capital. This town, the oldest in the Territory, had been founded in 1764, by M. Laclede, agent for a trading association, to whom had been given, by the French government of Louisiana, a monopoly of the commerce in furs and peltries with the Indian tribes of the Missouri and upper Mississippi Rivers. The population of the Territory, in 1805, was trifling and consisted mainly of French Creoles and traders, who were scattered along the banks of the Mississippi and the Arkansas Rivers. Upon the admission of Louisiana as a State, the name of the Territory of Louisiana was changed to that of Missouri. From the southern part of this, in 1819, was erected the Territory of Arkansas, which then contained but a few thousand inhabitants, who were mainly in detached settlements on the Mississippi and on the Arkansas Rivers, in the vicinity of the “Post of Arkansas.” The first settlement in Arkansas was made on the Arkansas River, about the year 1723, upon the grant of the notorious John Law; but, being unsuccessful, was soon after abandoned. In 1820, Missouri was admitted into the Union, and Arkansas in 1836. Michigan was admitted as a State in 1837. The Huron District was organized as the Wisconsin Territory, in 1836, and was admitted into the Union, as a State, in 1848. The first settlement in Wisconsin was made in 1665, when Father Claude Allouez established a mission at La Pointe, at the western end of Lake Superior. Four years after, a mission was permanently established at Green Bay: and, eventually, the French also established themselves at Prairie du Chien. In 1819, an expedition, under Governor Cass, explored the territory and found it to be little more than the abode of a few Indian traders, scattered here and there. About this time, the Government established military posts at Green Bay and Prairie du Chien. About the year 1825, some farmers settled in the vicinity of Galena, which had then become a noted mineral region. Immediately after the war with Black Hawk, emigrants flowed in from New York, Ohio, and Michigan, and the flourishing towns of Milwaukee, Sheboygan, Racine, and Southport were laid out on the borders of Lake Michigan. At the conclusion of the same war, the lands west of the Mississippi River were thrown open to emigrants, who commenced settlements in the vicinity of Fort Madison and Burlington, in 1833. Dubuque had long before been a trading post and as the first settlement in Iowa. It derived its name from Julien Dubuque, an enterprising French Canadian, who, in 1788, obtained a grant of 140,000 acres from the Indians, upon which he resided until his death, in 1810, when he had accumulated immense wealth by lead mining and trading. In June 1838, Iowa was erected into a Territory, and in 1846, became a State. In 1849, Minnesota Territory was organized; it then contained a little less than 5,000 souls. The first American establishment in the Territory was Fort Snelling, at the mouth of St. Peters, or Minnesota River, which was founded in 1819. The French, and afterward the English, occupied this country with their fur trading forts. Pembina, on the northern boundary, is the oldest village, having been established in 1812 by Lord Selkirk, a Scottish nobleman, under a grant from the Hudson’s Bay Company. But, here the adventurous spirit of emigration does not pause. The blue waters of the far distant Pacific were the only barrier of the never-ceasing human tide. The rich valleys of Oregon and the golden sands of California then became the lures to attract thousands from the comforts of home, civilization, and refinement, in search of fortune and independence in distant wilds. About the Author and Article: This article was a chapter in Henry Howe’s book Historical Collections of the Great West, published by George F. Tuttle, of New York, in 1857. Henry Howe (1816 -1893) was an author, publisher, historian, and bookseller. Born in New Haven Connecticut, his father owned a popular bookshop and was also a publisher. Henry would write histories of several states. His most famous work was the three-volume Historical Collections of Ohio. As he collected facts for his writing, he also drew sketches which helped create interest in his work. 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By the ordinance of 1787, the people of the Northwest Territory were entitled to elect Representatives to a Territorial Legislature whenever it contained 5,000 males of full age. Before the close of the year 1798, the Territory had this number, and members to a Territorial Legislature were soon after chosen. In the year 1799, William H. Harrison was chosen as the first delegate to Congress from the Northwest Territory. In 1800, the Territory of Indiana was formed, and the next year, William H. Harrison appointed Governor. This Territory comprised the present States of Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin and Michigan, which vast country then had less than 6,000 whites, and those mainly of French origin. On April 30, 1802, Congress passed an act authorizing a convention, to form a constitution for Ohio. This convention met at Chillicothe in the succeeding November, and, on the 29th of that month, a constitution of State Government was ratified and signed, by which act Ohio became one of the States of the Federal Union. In October 1802, the whole western country was thrown into a ferment by the suspension of the American right of depositing goods and produce at New Orleans, guaranteed by the treaty of 1795, with Spain. The whole commerce of the west was struck at in a vital point, and the treaty evidently violated. On February 25, 1803, the port was opened to provisions, on paying a duty, and in April following, by orders of the King of Spain, the right of deposit was restored. After the treaty of 1763, Louisiana remained in possession of Spain until 1803, when it was again restored to France by the terms of a secret article in the treaty of St. lldefonso concluded with Spain in 1800. France held but brief possession; on the 30th of April, she sold her claim to the United States for the consideration of fifteen millions of dollars. On the 20th of the succeeding December, General Wilkinson and Claiborne took possession of the country for the United States and entered New Orleans at the head of the American troops. On January 11, 1805, Congress established the Territory of Michigan and appointed William Hull, Governor. This same year, Detroit was destroyed by fire. The town occupied only about two acres, completely covered with buildings and combustible materials, excepting the narrow intervals of fourteen or fifteen feet used as streets or lanes, and the whole was environed with a very strong and secure defense of tall and solid pickets. At this period, the conspiracy of Aaron Burr began to agitate the western country. In December 1806, a fleet of boats, with arms, provisions, and ammunition, belonging to the confederates of Burr, were seized, upon the Muskingum, by agents of the United States, which proved a fatal blow to the project. In 1809, the Territory of Illinois was formed from the western part of the Indiana Territory, and named for the powerful tribe which once had occupied its soil. The Indians, who, since the Treaty of Greenville, had been at peace, about the year 1810, began to commit aggressions upon the inhabitants of the west, under the leadership of Tecumseh. The next year, they were defeated by General Harrison, at the battle of Tippecanoe, in Indiana. This year was also distinguished by the voyage, from Pittsburgh to New Orleans, of the steamboat New Orleans, the first steamer ever launched upon the western waters. In June 1812, the United States declared war against Great Britain. Of this war, the west was the principal theater. Its opening scenes were as gloomy and disastrous to the American arms as its close was brilliant and triumphant. At the close of the war, the population of the Territories of Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan was less than 50,000. But, from that time onward, the tide of emigration again went forward with unprecedented rapidity. On April 19, 1816, Indiana was admitted into the Union, and Illinois, December 3, 1818. The remainder of the Northwest Territory, as then organized, was included in the Territory of Michigan, of which, that section west of Lake Michigan, bore the name of the Huron District. This part of the west increased so slowly that, by the census of 1830, the Territory of Michigan contained, exclusive of the Huron District, but 28,000 souls, while that had only a population of 3,640. Emigration began to set in more strongly to the Territory of Michigan in consequence of steam navigation having been successfully introduced upon the great lakes of the west. The first steamboat upon these immense inland seas was the Walk-in-the-Water, which, in 1819, went as far as Mackinaw; yet, it was not until 1826, that a steamer rode the waters of Lake Michigan, and six years more had elapsed before one had penetrated as far as Chicago, Illinois The year 1832 was signalized by three important events in the history of the west — the first appearance of the Asiatic Cholera, the Great Flood in the Ohio River, and Black Hawk War. The west has suffered serious drawbacks, in its progress, from inefficient systems of banking. One bank frequently was made the basis of another, and that of a third, and so on throughout the country. Some three or four, shrewd agents or directors, in establishing a bank, would collect a few thousand in specie, that had been honestly paid in, and then make up the remainder of the capital with the bills or stock from some neighboring bank. Thus, so intimate was the connection of each bank with others, that, when one or two gave way, they all went down together in one common ruin. In 1804, the year preceding Louisiana Purchase, Congress formed from part of it, the “Territory of Orleans,” which was admitted into the Union in 1812, as the State of Louisiana. In 1805, after the Territory of Orleans was erected, the remaining part of the purchase from the French was formed into the Territory of Louisiana, of which the old French town of St. Louis was the capital. This town, the oldest in the Territory, had been founded in 1764, by M. Laclede, agent for a trading association, to whom had been given, by the French government of Louisiana, a monopoly of the commerce in furs and peltries with the Indian tribes of the Missouri and upper Mississippi Rivers. The population of the Territory, in 1805, was trifling and consisted mainly of French Creoles and traders, who were scattered along the banks of the Mississippi and the Arkansas Rivers. Upon the admission of Louisiana as a State, the name of the Territory of Louisiana was changed to that of Missouri. From the southern part of this, in 1819, was erected the Territory of Arkansas, which then contained but a few thousand inhabitants, who were mainly in detached settlements on the Mississippi and on the Arkansas Rivers, in the vicinity of the “Post of Arkansas.” The first settlement in Arkansas was made on the Arkansas River, about the year 1723, upon the grant of the notorious John Law; but, being unsuccessful, was soon after abandoned. In 1820, Missouri was admitted into the Union, and Arkansas in 1836. Michigan was admitted as a State in 1837. The Huron District was organized as the Wisconsin Territory, in 1836, and was admitted into the Union, as a State, in 1848. The first settlement in Wisconsin was made in 1665, when Father Claude Allouez established a mission at La Pointe, at the western end of Lake Superior. Four years after, a mission was permanently established at Green Bay: and, eventually, the French also established themselves at Prairie du Chien. In 1819, an expedition, under Governor Cass, explored the territory and found it to be little more than the abode of a few Indian traders, scattered here and there. About this time, the Government established military posts at Green Bay and Prairie du Chien. About the year 1825, some farmers settled in the vicinity of Galena, which had then become a noted mineral region. Immediately after the war with Black Hawk, emigrants flowed in from New York, Ohio, and Michigan, and the flourishing towns of Milwaukee, Sheboygan, Racine, and Southport were laid out on the borders of Lake Michigan. At the conclusion of the same war, the lands west of the Mississippi River were thrown open to emigrants, who commenced settlements in the vicinity of Fort Madison and Burlington, in 1833. Dubuque had long before been a trading post and as the first settlement in Iowa. It derived its name from Julien Dubuque, an enterprising French Canadian, who, in 1788, obtained a grant of 140,000 acres from the Indians, upon which he resided until his death, in 1810, when he had accumulated immense wealth by lead mining and trading. In June 1838, Iowa was erected into a Territory, and in 1846, became a State. In 1849, Minnesota Territory was organized; it then contained a little less than 5,000 souls. The first American establishment in the Territory was Fort Snelling, at the mouth of St. Peters, or Minnesota River, which was founded in 1819. The French, and afterward the English, occupied this country with their fur trading forts. Pembina, on the northern boundary, is the oldest village, having been established in 1812 by Lord Selkirk, a Scottish nobleman, under a grant from the Hudson’s Bay Company. But, here the adventurous spirit of emigration does not pause. The blue waters of the far distant Pacific were the only barrier of the never-ceasing human tide. The rich valleys of Oregon and the golden sands of California then became the lures to attract thousands from the comforts of home, civilization, and refinement, in search of fortune and independence in distant wilds. About the Author and Article: This article was a chapter in Henry Howe’s book Historical Collections of the Great West, published by George F. Tuttle, of New York, in 1857. Henry Howe (1816 -1893) was an author, publisher, historian, and bookseller. Born in New Haven Connecticut, his father owned a popular bookshop and was also a publisher. Henry would write histories of several states. His most famous work was the three-volume Historical Collections of Ohio. As he collected facts for his writing, he also drew sketches which helped create interest in his work. The article as it appears here is not verbatim, as it has been edited for the modern reader; however, the content essentially remains the same.	2,390	ENGLISH	1
Ernest Shackleton was an Anglo-Irish explorer who launched the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition in 1914. During the expedition, the ship Endurance became trapped in ice and for ten months drifted until the pressure fo the ice crushed and sank the ship. Shackleton and his men were stranded on ice floes, where they camped for five months. The men sailed three small lifeboats to Elephant Island, which was uninhabited and provided no hope for rescue. Shackelton and five others set out to take the crew's rescue into their own hands. In a 22-foot lifeboat, they survived a 17-day, 800 mile journey through the world's worst seas to South Georgia Island, where a whaling station was located. The six men landed on an uninhabited part of the island, so their last hope was to cross 26 miles of mountains and glaciers to reach the whaling station on the other side. Shackleton and two others made the trek and arrived safely in August 1916, 21 months after their initial departure on the Endurance. With the help of the Chilean navy and its government, Shackleton returned to rescue the men on Elephant Island. Not even one member of the 28-man crew was lost!! This story was incredible and inspirational, no one could fathom that the crew could survive for so long in a cold, uninhabited area. Shackleton was interviewed many times after the safe arrival back home, but it wasn't until he was on his deathbed in 1922 that he told the true story of his crews safety net. He told the story how he met a augurer a week or so before his voyage. The man felt negative energy surrounding him and warned him of the trip. Ernest was not going to allow a magical endower to offset his trip, but he was willing to accept protection amulets for all the members of his crew. Each piece was instilled with purified energies that enriched their bodies and helped keep them safe. These pieces will correlate with your body and grant the needed effects that will enlighten you. If you are cold, the piece will warm your body... if you are hot, you will be cooled down by the energy. The pieces are what are believed to have maintained the health and safety of the 28 member crew. There really was no real nutrition and food during this whole endeavor --- the amulets they carried, and wore, gave them the fuel to burn and the will to live! Several of these pieces had been on display in a traveling museum tour, but after the exhibit was set to close they went up for auction. We were extremely lucky to get the pieces you see below! This is your opportunity to own a legendary piece that will help you re-think how you live. You can have more of an adventure, knowing that you have greater access to everything you want and need, whenever you want and need it. Amazing pieces of protection, purification and paranormal energies ~ they are simply extraordinary!	<urn:uuid:16def9c6-3fde-465e-a46d-fec541003a67>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.hauntedcollector.net/products/81711032	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00335.warc.gz	en	0.985932	615	3.328125	3	[ -0.29134681820869446, 0.18483872711658478, 0.27212950587272644, -0.08953000605106354, 0.06212935969233513, -0.12165504693984985, 0.2733362317085266, -0.04808996245265007, -0.5876853466033936, -0.20458689332008362, 0.4118940830230713, -0.646337628364563, 0.2407689094543457, 0.40009617805480957, -0.25932538509368896, 0.3889615833759308, -0.2606082558631897, 0.20103943347930908, -0.5750868916511536, 0.48587512969970703, 0.29383593797683716, -0.04210621118545532, 0.03366299718618393, -0.17823998630046844, 0.10414761304855347, 0.4945034384727478, 0.15871886909008026, -0.11564799398183823, -0.23487544059753418, 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-0.3192785978317261, -0.4256848096847534, -0.15930700302124023, 0.6706291437149048, 0.09102359414100647, 0.8083644509315491, 0.21227893233299255, -0.12950478494167328, -0.7238142490386963, -0.15778595209121704, -0.23380956053733826, -0.3297046422958374, -0.2480730563402176, 0.2008381187915802, 0.015995502471923828, 0.21950973570346832, 0.20472869277000427, -0.23242449760437012, -0.21127431094646454, 0.18471470475196838, -0.4452746510505676, -0.19269156455993652, -0.089312344789505, -0.14933231472969055, 0.07376410067081451, -0.05405808240175247 ]	3	Ernest Shackleton was an Anglo-Irish explorer who launched the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition in 1914. During the expedition, the ship Endurance became trapped in ice and for ten months drifted until the pressure fo the ice crushed and sank the ship. Shackleton and his men were stranded on ice floes, where they camped for five months. The men sailed three small lifeboats to Elephant Island, which was uninhabited and provided no hope for rescue. Shackelton and five others set out to take the crew's rescue into their own hands. In a 22-foot lifeboat, they survived a 17-day, 800 mile journey through the world's worst seas to South Georgia Island, where a whaling station was located. The six men landed on an uninhabited part of the island, so their last hope was to cross 26 miles of mountains and glaciers to reach the whaling station on the other side. Shackleton and two others made the trek and arrived safely in August 1916, 21 months after their initial departure on the Endurance. With the help of the Chilean navy and its government, Shackleton returned to rescue the men on Elephant Island. Not even one member of the 28-man crew was lost!! This story was incredible and inspirational, no one could fathom that the crew could survive for so long in a cold, uninhabited area. Shackleton was interviewed many times after the safe arrival back home, but it wasn't until he was on his deathbed in 1922 that he told the true story of his crews safety net. He told the story how he met a augurer a week or so before his voyage. The man felt negative energy surrounding him and warned him of the trip. Ernest was not going to allow a magical endower to offset his trip, but he was willing to accept protection amulets for all the members of his crew. Each piece was instilled with purified energies that enriched their bodies and helped keep them safe. These pieces will correlate with your body and grant the needed effects that will enlighten you. If you are cold, the piece will warm your body... if you are hot, you will be cooled down by the energy. The pieces are what are believed to have maintained the health and safety of the 28 member crew. There really was no real nutrition and food during this whole endeavor --- the amulets they carried, and wore, gave them the fuel to burn and the will to live! Several of these pieces had been on display in a traveling museum tour, but after the exhibit was set to close they went up for auction. We were extremely lucky to get the pieces you see below! This is your opportunity to own a legendary piece that will help you re-think how you live. You can have more of an adventure, knowing that you have greater access to everything you want and need, whenever you want and need it. Amazing pieces of protection, purification and paranormal energies ~ they are simply extraordinary!	628	ENGLISH	1
During the aboriginal and early contact periods the Catawba built settlements along the Piedmont's rivers and streams. At one time these villages probably were widely dispersed, but by the early eighteenth century European diseases and raids by enemy Indians had helped create a tight cluster of six or seven towns, with perhaps four hundred persons in each, near the junction of the Catawba River and Sugar Creek. Palisades were a common feature, as were open areas in the center for communal activities. Most towns had a large "state house," which was used for ceremonies and for greeting and housing guests. By the late eighteenth century, disease had reduced the number of settlements to one or two, and a decline in enemy raids made palisades superfluous. A century later the towns themselves were gone, and the Catawba were scattered across the landscape—some on farms, others in nearby towns—as they are today. The aboriginal Catawba house was a circular or oval structure framed of bent saplings and covered with bark or skins. Around the time of the American Revolution they began to imitate their White neighbors and build log cabins. Today their houses are indistinguishable from those of the surrounding population.	<urn:uuid:a8f3dedf-1bac-4260-b0e7-9dc92f5d481e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.everyculture.com/North-America/Catawba-Settlements.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00012.warc.gz	en	0.989042	241	4.125	4	[ 0.08268548548221588, 0.23234783113002777, 0.4118942618370056, 0.32360008358955383, -0.11700412631034851, -0.14401845633983612, -0.01935008354485035, 0.17543253302574158, -0.5702090859413147, 0.17527706921100616, 0.10602644830942154, -0.5329369902610779, -0.025181595236063004, 0.3220863342285156, -0.02277585305273533, 0.6139340400695801, -0.6593610048294067, 0.24626705050468445, -0.15042030811309814, 0.17168143391609192, -0.034585606306791306, -0.00004279901986592449, -0.011962131597101688, 0.034130729734897614, 0.08035323768854141, 0.651857316493988, -0.062147464603185654, -0.18589752912521362, -0.14718487858772278, 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-0.14783348143100739, -0.08321429044008255, -0.8767393827438354, 0.05609190836548805, -0.44733747839927673, 0.39993852376937866, 0.5255776643753052, 0.3072640299797058, -0.5592149496078491, -0.4656734764575958, 0.4693143963813782, 0.11051273345947266, -0.37423649430274963, 0.055244412273168564, -0.17617444694042206, -0.05675235390663147, 0.20673878490924835, 0.2312595695257187, -0.6274052858352661, 0.0270391833037138, -0.18049615621566772, 0.0653737410902977, -0.22999307513237, -0.10555975139141083, -0.0873044952750206, -0.18273165822029114, 0.3143555223941803 ]	3	During the aboriginal and early contact periods the Catawba built settlements along the Piedmont's rivers and streams. At one time these villages probably were widely dispersed, but by the early eighteenth century European diseases and raids by enemy Indians had helped create a tight cluster of six or seven towns, with perhaps four hundred persons in each, near the junction of the Catawba River and Sugar Creek. Palisades were a common feature, as were open areas in the center for communal activities. Most towns had a large "state house," which was used for ceremonies and for greeting and housing guests. By the late eighteenth century, disease had reduced the number of settlements to one or two, and a decline in enemy raids made palisades superfluous. A century later the towns themselves were gone, and the Catawba were scattered across the landscape—some on farms, others in nearby towns—as they are today. The aboriginal Catawba house was a circular or oval structure framed of bent saplings and covered with bark or skins. Around the time of the American Revolution they began to imitate their White neighbors and build log cabins. Today their houses are indistinguishable from those of the surrounding population.	245	ENGLISH	1
Columbus – Friend Or Foe Explore, discover and develop or seek, destroy and conquer. Almost everyone recognizes the name Christopher Columbus and understands what his role was in changing the views, lifestyles, politics, and geography of the fifteenth century modern world. Christopher Columbus discovered a world known to no European, African or Asian. He discovered the New World, the Americas. However, is todays society aware of the consequences, which came with this newfound world or are they blinded by biased history books and school texts. My view of Christopher Columbus and his glorious discovery was a traditional one. Columbus, the great explorer, heroically discovered the Americas making friends with the natives creating a new way of life for the entire world. I am sorry to say that I was misguided in my education about Christopher Columbus. Christopher Columbus was born in Genoa in 1451 the son of a weaver and by the time he reach his late teenage years he went to sea and voyaged for many years trading for various employers in Genoa, Italy. His work eventually took him to England in 1477 and West Africa in 1482. About this time he began to seek financial support for a major Atlantic expedition. Most writers and philosophers, along with Columbus, had accepted that the Earth was round, and so Columbus understood that China and Japan could be reached by sailing west. His idea was logical, but not factual. Columbus didnt count on there being giant landmasses between the two, which was never explored by anyone outside of the Eastern Hemisphere. For some years Columbus failed to obtain support for a transatlantic expedition but in March 1492 the catholic monarchs of Spain, Isabella and Ferdinand, approved his voyage and awarded him the title of Admiral of the Ocean Sea and the governorship of any new land he might discover. He set sail in August 1492 with his fleet of three ships and one hundred men and made landfall in the Bahamas, October 1492. Prior to my revised education about Christopher Columbus, the preceding two paragraphs about his pre-discovery are just about the same in both histories, however from the moment he steps foot on land is where they conflict. My original views of how he handled his discovery probably matched a majority of the populations. In 1492 Christopher Columbus made a famous mistake as he discovered America. Unaware of the existence of America, he believed that his ships landed at the Spice Islands near India and named the islands the Indies and their people the Indians. Christopher Columbus, in my eyes was a brave, brilliant, great explorer. I viewed him as a man second to none, especially because I share the same ethnic background with him. When I first entered this class I wondered why we were going to learn about a hero like Columbus when everyone knows of him and his journey. However, after reading Zinns shocking depiction of history and Columbus conquest of the New World, it shed a new light on an old tale. Upon his discovery and his interaction with the natives, which he called Indians, Columbus recognized opportunity for him and the Kingdom that he represented. They (the Indians) should be made to work, farm and live like us. Columbus wrote in his letter to Isabella and Ferdinand. Columbus used their good, trusting nature to take their land and enslave them to find gold and work on plantations killing any Indian who opposed him. He and most Europeans felt that their own culture was far better and usually described Indians as savages. Columbus men acted as if they were rulers of a kingdom or gods of a new world and had no mercy, sometimes brutally killing Indian men and children for fun and raping the women. They brought disease, famine and death to millions of people who were peaceful, giving and loving. My view of Christopher Columbus is no longer the one I grew up with, but it is one of embarrassment, disgust and abhorrence. I have always thought that Columbus explored the world, discovering America to develop the advancement of the human race, peacefully. Now I know that he searched for a new way to make money destroying the Native Americans life, conquering all.	<urn:uuid:24907a8a-d4a0-45c5-b74a-dc0abbc37b0f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://thewop.org/columbus-friend-or-foe/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00017.warc.gz	en	0.98038	826	3.3125	3	[ -0.34168899059295654, 0.139155313372612, 0.3372361361980438, 0.43691980838775635, -0.44413113594055176, -0.13583271205425262, 0.5721360445022583, 0.058227501809597015, -0.10381671786308289, -0.20692193508148193, 0.34398353099823, -0.40323084592819214, -0.11171801388263702, 0.35912665724754333, -0.23125353455543518, 0.042447637766599655, -0.3928062617778778, 0.22752374410629272, -0.8696203231811523, -0.05462353676557541, 0.2627515196800232, -0.4095170497894287, 0.09250280261039734, -0.5310522317886353, -0.4284496307373047, 0.5564819574356079, 0.30981674790382385, -0.18912312388420105, -0.056867849081754684, 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Almost everyone recognizes the name Christopher Columbus and understands what his role was in changing the views, lifestyles, politics, and geography of the fifteenth century modern world. Christopher Columbus discovered a world known to no European, African or Asian. He discovered the New World, the Americas. However, is todays society aware of the consequences, which came with this newfound world or are they blinded by biased history books and school texts. My view of Christopher Columbus and his glorious discovery was a traditional one. Columbus, the great explorer, heroically discovered the Americas making friends with the natives creating a new way of life for the entire world. I am sorry to say that I was misguided in my education about Christopher Columbus. Christopher Columbus was born in Genoa in 1451 the son of a weaver and by the time he reach his late teenage years he went to sea and voyaged for many years trading for various employers in Genoa, Italy. His work eventually took him to England in 1477 and West Africa in 1482. About this time he began to seek financial support for a major Atlantic expedition. Most writers and philosophers, along with Columbus, had accepted that the Earth was round, and so Columbus understood that China and Japan could be reached by sailing west. His idea was logical, but not factual. Columbus didnt count on there being giant landmasses between the two, which was never explored by anyone outside of the Eastern Hemisphere. For some years Columbus failed to obtain support for a transatlantic expedition but in March 1492 the catholic monarchs of Spain, Isabella and Ferdinand, approved his voyage and awarded him the title of Admiral of the Ocean Sea and the governorship of any new land he might discover. He set sail in August 1492 with his fleet of three ships and one hundred men and made landfall in the Bahamas, October 1492. Prior to my revised education about Christopher Columbus, the preceding two paragraphs about his pre-discovery are just about the same in both histories, however from the moment he steps foot on land is where they conflict. My original views of how he handled his discovery probably matched a majority of the populations. In 1492 Christopher Columbus made a famous mistake as he discovered America. Unaware of the existence of America, he believed that his ships landed at the Spice Islands near India and named the islands the Indies and their people the Indians. Christopher Columbus, in my eyes was a brave, brilliant, great explorer. I viewed him as a man second to none, especially because I share the same ethnic background with him. When I first entered this class I wondered why we were going to learn about a hero like Columbus when everyone knows of him and his journey. However, after reading Zinns shocking depiction of history and Columbus conquest of the New World, it shed a new light on an old tale. Upon his discovery and his interaction with the natives, which he called Indians, Columbus recognized opportunity for him and the Kingdom that he represented. They (the Indians) should be made to work, farm and live like us. Columbus wrote in his letter to Isabella and Ferdinand. Columbus used their good, trusting nature to take their land and enslave them to find gold and work on plantations killing any Indian who opposed him. He and most Europeans felt that their own culture was far better and usually described Indians as savages. Columbus men acted as if they were rulers of a kingdom or gods of a new world and had no mercy, sometimes brutally killing Indian men and children for fun and raping the women. They brought disease, famine and death to millions of people who were peaceful, giving and loving. My view of Christopher Columbus is no longer the one I grew up with, but it is one of embarrassment, disgust and abhorrence. I have always thought that Columbus explored the world, discovering America to develop the advancement of the human race, peacefully. Now I know that he searched for a new way to make money destroying the Native Americans life, conquering all.	846	ENGLISH	1
Urquhart (pronounced er-ch-ert) Castle was formally one of the largest castles in Scotland when it was fully intact. Still, to this day, its ruins are an impressive sight to behold. In its native Scottish Gaelic, Urquhart Castle is known as Caisteal na Sròine. The historical castle ruins can be found on the famous banks of Loch Ness in the heart of the Scottish Highlands. Near Urquhart castle is the beautiful small village of Drumnadrochit which is located around 1.2 miles away from the castle on the western shore of Loch Ness, while the capital city of the Highlands, Inverness, is around 13 miles north-east. Some even refer to Urquhart Castle as Castle Loch Ness because of its iconic location. On the map below you can view where Urquhart Castle is in the Highlands of Scotland. Use the + and – symbols to zoom in and out for a closer look and to see where places such as Drumnadrochit and Inverness are in relation to the castle. The castle is formed of two ‘baileys,’ or enclosures, known as the Nether bailey on the northside and the Upper bailey on the southside of the land. The southern end is considerably higher than the northern end. On the Northern tip stands an impressive tower, known as the Grant Tower. This was first built in the 14th century, but the tower remains mostly from rebuilding that took place in the 16th century. The tower is the tallest part of the castle that has survived from the years of destruction and decay – this is despite the southern wall collapsing in a severe storm which occurred sometime during the early 18th century. The southern end is considerably higher than the northern end. The mound which this part of the castle sits on is the site of the earliest defences of Urquhart dating back to the medieval period. It is thought that the buildings in this area could have been home to the stables and possibly a rather enchanting great hall. The Ruins of Urquhart Castle are said to be over 1,000 years old and date back to the 13th century. It was built on the foundations of an early Medieval fortification. Some historians believe that Urquhart Castle held status as a royal castle as early as the 12th century, but there seems to be debate among other historians questioning if this was actually the case stating that there is not enough evidence to paint a clear picture. 1296 was the year of the first recorded document of Urquhart Castle. During this time the castle was besieged by the English and captured by Edward I, thus marking the beginning of the Wars for Scottish Independence, which would go on continuously until the year 1537. It seems that over 200 years there were many Urquhart Castle battles between the English and the Scottish armies, both who would intermittently claim the castle over this long period of time. In 1298 Urquhart Castle would once again be in the possession of the Scottish, but in 1303 the castle was again in the hands of the English after succumbing to an attack on the castle. Thanks to Robert the Bruce in 1306 the castle was yet again in control of the Scots after defeating the Comyn family – it was around this time that Urquhart Castle (once again – depending on your what you believe from different history books) became a royal castle. In 1509 the Grant clan was ‘granted’ the castle and despite numerous raids of the building the castle was strengthened over time, but unfortunately, this did not last long and the castle was abandoned during the 17th century. The restructuring that happened during the period of the Grants fell apart and to further its downfall was subject to deliberate damage in a strategy to prevent the Jacobites claiming Urquhart Castle as their own. After years of warfare, Urquhart Castle had felt its fair share of destruction and by the 19th century, the structure was totally roofless but was regarded by artists and many visitors to the Highlands during the time as a uniquely romantic setting with its view of Loch Ness. Many in the present share this romantic notion about the castle with a number of couples from all over the world tying the knot with their own dream Urquhart Castle wedding. Urquhart Castle is a part of Scottish heritage and today the castle is a must-see location of the Highlands. Over the years Urquhart Castle has long been associated with a number of ‘supposed’ sightings of the famous Loch Ness Monster. In popular media, Nessie is usually depicted commonly in one of two forms – either, with the body of an aquatic dinosaur-like creature with its body hidden beneath the water and a long neck that stretching out high into the open air, or as a gigantic eel with two humps which can be seen above sea level as well as possessing a long giraffe-like neck. In both instances, the description of the sea creature suggests that it needs to surface every once in a while to breathe in oxygen – so if you find yourself exploring Urquhart Castle find a good high vantage point as you never know when she will next surface for air! Possibly the earliest, and maybe the only, photograph taken of Nessie with Urquhart Castle in the background was snapped in 1955 by Mr. Peter A McNab. In his picture, two long black ‘humps’ could be seen in the distant water travelling towards a shadowy Urquhart Castle in a purely black and white photo. Some sceptics believe the ‘humps’ in the sea could easily just be a wave effect from a few trawlers closely sailing across the loch or that the photo had been tampered with in some way to show the illusion of an undiscovered sea mammal racing across the water. Sounding like something straight out of an episode of the X-Files, although this preceded the show by over 30 years, the LNPIB was set up in 1962 and ran up until 1972. The group was started through a group of volunteers and their purpose was to search the whole of Loch Ness in order to discover the whereabouts of Nessie. The idea of the group was to survey the Loch with a number of cameras and telescopes at different vantage points around the Loch in order to capture footage of the Loch Monster. Originally the group was located at Achnahannet but later moved to Urquhart Bay (near the Castle) as part of a sonar study, which would hopefully help the identification of the Monster. The bureau was made up of 1,030 members of which 588 were from the United Kingdom, according to a bureau report in 1969 – it is safe to say that the mystery of the Loch Ness Monster has inspired people from all the around the world for many decades. During a peaceful day in 1977 whilst camping beside Urquhart Castle, Anthony ‘Doc’ Shiels claims to have taken a very clear photo of Nessie with her neck standing tall above the water. Unfortunately, many believe the photo to be a hoax and it seems to too clear a shot of the creature for the photo to have been quickly snapped and others state because there are no ripples surrounding the monster then the photo has undoubtedly been doctored. Many people became sceptical of Shiels as the professional magician and psychic stated that he apparently summoned the creature to come out of the Loch shortly after the photo was taken claiming that the animal actually resembled a gigantic squid. The reason this photo is referred to as ‘the Loch Ness Muppet’ is perhaps not a kind reason – it is likely because the creature in the photo looked very much like a muppet floating in the water. Fast forward to 2018 and according to official records, a total number of 13 sightings were reported. These reports stated that they had witnessed Nessie swimming around the seas of Loch Ness, which was an increase from 11 sightings in 2017. Out of 13 sightings in the Loch Ness area, 4 were spotted around Castle Urquhart in 2018. During March 2018 an American tourist noticed a dark shape around 40 feet in length moving in the water towards the Urquhart Castle jetty area. The next month in April an Irish-man took 10-minute video footage from the Loch Ness webcam that apparently showed a creature travelling the water near Urquhart Bay but it sank soon after two boats appeared to have had scared it away. Then later that year in the summer month of August, a 10-year-old girl had claimed she had taken a photo of a shadowy creature with her iPhone from her parent’s car whilst they were driving away from Urquhart Castle. On the 17th of August the Locke family, a group of visiting Canadians, filmed a solid dark shape near the castle that stayed in the area for around 1 minute. Judging from these sightings it appears that the best time to search for Nessie from Urquhart Castle is the months of spring and summer. Who knows for sure, maybe she goes into hiding during the winter months! For those interested, there is a complete register of Nessie sightings here. Despite its iconic location on the banks of Loch Ness Urquhart Castle has not been used much in fictional TV and film dramas, although it has been mentioned in the hit historical time-traveling drama Outlander. The only film where the castle has been fully featured is perhaps a surprising one if you just judge the film by its given title, but Urquhart Castle was used for shooting a number of scenes for the 1970s film called ‘The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes.’ Sherlock Holmes and Urquhart Castle may not seem like two things that should go together, but it turns out that a missing person case leads Sherlock to the iconic castle at Urquhart. There is even a scene in the movie where Watson spots the beast of Loch Ness, Nessie, surfacing around the Urquhart Castle area. Even though the movie was filmed in the late 1960s it does have more recent relevance, as in April 2016 a 30ft prop of Nessie was hauled out of the Loch by a team that happened to be searching for the ‘real’ monster of the Loch. The prop was confirmed to have been made for the use in the filming of ‘The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes’ and nearly 50 years later it had been salvaged. The prop of the monster had sunk to the bottom of the Loch because director, Billy Wilder, wanted his version of Nessie to not feature any humps and only the neck and head of the creature was to be seen out of the water. Billy Wilder was unhappy with the prop featuring two humps and ordered that they needed to be cut off from the model. As a result, the Loch Ness Monster model ending up sinking beneath the waves and a new model was required to be created in a hurry. The discovery of the model must have been a great disappointment to Nessie believers as any hard physical evidence still seems yet to be found. In a 1996 film cleverly titled, ‘Loch Ness’, starring Ted Danson (probably best known for his roles in the sitcom, Cheers, and comedy series, the Good Place) plays the role of Scientist Dr. John Dempsey who is asked to travel to Loch Ness and dispel the centuries-old myth of the Loch Ness Monster. In the Movie, Danson’s character teams up with another scientist who has a strong belief in Nessie and is determined to prove its existence. Fictionally, the movie suggests that an underground cavern exists beneath Urquhart Castle and that the creature dwells within – so perhaps if you find yourself wandering the area be on the lookout as Nessie could very well be under your feet! The movie was only partially filmed around Loch Ness and the village scenes were actually shot in Lower Diabaig near Torridon.	<urn:uuid:b0f46276-f36a-474b-a543-2f82cec0eabf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wildernessscotland.com/blog/urquhart-castle-history-nessie-sherlock-holmes/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00400.warc.gz	en	0.982103	2,450	3.609375	4	[ -0.48710396885871887, -0.04628681391477585, 0.5100687146186829, 0.13348178565502167, 0.09270022809505463, -0.04232296347618103, 0.13838917016983032, -0.18895116448402405, -0.21105796098709106, -0.125908762216568, 0.06797140836715698, -0.4963665008544922, 0.38604259490966797, -0.07191500067710876, 0.3631027936935425, 0.3793957233428955, -0.41956549882888794, 0.4286424517631531, -0.05852681025862694, 0.3092045187950134, 0.8492980599403381, -0.24088522791862488, 0.15779992938041687, 0.07442107796669006, 0.11739915609359741, 0.319011390209198, 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Still, to this day, its ruins are an impressive sight to behold. In its native Scottish Gaelic, Urquhart Castle is known as Caisteal na Sròine. The historical castle ruins can be found on the famous banks of Loch Ness in the heart of the Scottish Highlands. Near Urquhart castle is the beautiful small village of Drumnadrochit which is located around 1.2 miles away from the castle on the western shore of Loch Ness, while the capital city of the Highlands, Inverness, is around 13 miles north-east. Some even refer to Urquhart Castle as Castle Loch Ness because of its iconic location. On the map below you can view where Urquhart Castle is in the Highlands of Scotland. Use the + and – symbols to zoom in and out for a closer look and to see where places such as Drumnadrochit and Inverness are in relation to the castle. The castle is formed of two ‘baileys,’ or enclosures, known as the Nether bailey on the northside and the Upper bailey on the southside of the land. The southern end is considerably higher than the northern end. On the Northern tip stands an impressive tower, known as the Grant Tower. This was first built in the 14th century, but the tower remains mostly from rebuilding that took place in the 16th century. The tower is the tallest part of the castle that has survived from the years of destruction and decay – this is despite the southern wall collapsing in a severe storm which occurred sometime during the early 18th century. The southern end is considerably higher than the northern end. The mound which this part of the castle sits on is the site of the earliest defences of Urquhart dating back to the medieval period. It is thought that the buildings in this area could have been home to the stables and possibly a rather enchanting great hall. The Ruins of Urquhart Castle are said to be over 1,000 years old and date back to the 13th century. It was built on the foundations of an early Medieval fortification. Some historians believe that Urquhart Castle held status as a royal castle as early as the 12th century, but there seems to be debate among other historians questioning if this was actually the case stating that there is not enough evidence to paint a clear picture. 1296 was the year of the first recorded document of Urquhart Castle. During this time the castle was besieged by the English and captured by Edward I, thus marking the beginning of the Wars for Scottish Independence, which would go on continuously until the year 1537. It seems that over 200 years there were many Urquhart Castle battles between the English and the Scottish armies, both who would intermittently claim the castle over this long period of time. In 1298 Urquhart Castle would once again be in the possession of the Scottish, but in 1303 the castle was again in the hands of the English after succumbing to an attack on the castle. Thanks to Robert the Bruce in 1306 the castle was yet again in control of the Scots after defeating the Comyn family – it was around this time that Urquhart Castle (once again – depending on your what you believe from different history books) became a royal castle. In 1509 the Grant clan was ‘granted’ the castle and despite numerous raids of the building the castle was strengthened over time, but unfortunately, this did not last long and the castle was abandoned during the 17th century. The restructuring that happened during the period of the Grants fell apart and to further its downfall was subject to deliberate damage in a strategy to prevent the Jacobites claiming Urquhart Castle as their own. After years of warfare, Urquhart Castle had felt its fair share of destruction and by the 19th century, the structure was totally roofless but was regarded by artists and many visitors to the Highlands during the time as a uniquely romantic setting with its view of Loch Ness. Many in the present share this romantic notion about the castle with a number of couples from all over the world tying the knot with their own dream Urquhart Castle wedding. Urquhart Castle is a part of Scottish heritage and today the castle is a must-see location of the Highlands. Over the years Urquhart Castle has long been associated with a number of ‘supposed’ sightings of the famous Loch Ness Monster. In popular media, Nessie is usually depicted commonly in one of two forms – either, with the body of an aquatic dinosaur-like creature with its body hidden beneath the water and a long neck that stretching out high into the open air, or as a gigantic eel with two humps which can be seen above sea level as well as possessing a long giraffe-like neck. In both instances, the description of the sea creature suggests that it needs to surface every once in a while to breathe in oxygen – so if you find yourself exploring Urquhart Castle find a good high vantage point as you never know when she will next surface for air! Possibly the earliest, and maybe the only, photograph taken of Nessie with Urquhart Castle in the background was snapped in 1955 by Mr. Peter A McNab. In his picture, two long black ‘humps’ could be seen in the distant water travelling towards a shadowy Urquhart Castle in a purely black and white photo. Some sceptics believe the ‘humps’ in the sea could easily just be a wave effect from a few trawlers closely sailing across the loch or that the photo had been tampered with in some way to show the illusion of an undiscovered sea mammal racing across the water. Sounding like something straight out of an episode of the X-Files, although this preceded the show by over 30 years, the LNPIB was set up in 1962 and ran up until 1972. The group was started through a group of volunteers and their purpose was to search the whole of Loch Ness in order to discover the whereabouts of Nessie. The idea of the group was to survey the Loch with a number of cameras and telescopes at different vantage points around the Loch in order to capture footage of the Loch Monster. Originally the group was located at Achnahannet but later moved to Urquhart Bay (near the Castle) as part of a sonar study, which would hopefully help the identification of the Monster. The bureau was made up of 1,030 members of which 588 were from the United Kingdom, according to a bureau report in 1969 – it is safe to say that the mystery of the Loch Ness Monster has inspired people from all the around the world for many decades. During a peaceful day in 1977 whilst camping beside Urquhart Castle, Anthony ‘Doc’ Shiels claims to have taken a very clear photo of Nessie with her neck standing tall above the water. Unfortunately, many believe the photo to be a hoax and it seems to too clear a shot of the creature for the photo to have been quickly snapped and others state because there are no ripples surrounding the monster then the photo has undoubtedly been doctored. Many people became sceptical of Shiels as the professional magician and psychic stated that he apparently summoned the creature to come out of the Loch shortly after the photo was taken claiming that the animal actually resembled a gigantic squid. The reason this photo is referred to as ‘the Loch Ness Muppet’ is perhaps not a kind reason – it is likely because the creature in the photo looked very much like a muppet floating in the water. Fast forward to 2018 and according to official records, a total number of 13 sightings were reported. These reports stated that they had witnessed Nessie swimming around the seas of Loch Ness, which was an increase from 11 sightings in 2017. Out of 13 sightings in the Loch Ness area, 4 were spotted around Castle Urquhart in 2018. During March 2018 an American tourist noticed a dark shape around 40 feet in length moving in the water towards the Urquhart Castle jetty area. The next month in April an Irish-man took 10-minute video footage from the Loch Ness webcam that apparently showed a creature travelling the water near Urquhart Bay but it sank soon after two boats appeared to have had scared it away. Then later that year in the summer month of August, a 10-year-old girl had claimed she had taken a photo of a shadowy creature with her iPhone from her parent’s car whilst they were driving away from Urquhart Castle. On the 17th of August the Locke family, a group of visiting Canadians, filmed a solid dark shape near the castle that stayed in the area for around 1 minute. Judging from these sightings it appears that the best time to search for Nessie from Urquhart Castle is the months of spring and summer. Who knows for sure, maybe she goes into hiding during the winter months! For those interested, there is a complete register of Nessie sightings here. Despite its iconic location on the banks of Loch Ness Urquhart Castle has not been used much in fictional TV and film dramas, although it has been mentioned in the hit historical time-traveling drama Outlander. The only film where the castle has been fully featured is perhaps a surprising one if you just judge the film by its given title, but Urquhart Castle was used for shooting a number of scenes for the 1970s film called ‘The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes.’ Sherlock Holmes and Urquhart Castle may not seem like two things that should go together, but it turns out that a missing person case leads Sherlock to the iconic castle at Urquhart. There is even a scene in the movie where Watson spots the beast of Loch Ness, Nessie, surfacing around the Urquhart Castle area. Even though the movie was filmed in the late 1960s it does have more recent relevance, as in April 2016 a 30ft prop of Nessie was hauled out of the Loch by a team that happened to be searching for the ‘real’ monster of the Loch. The prop was confirmed to have been made for the use in the filming of ‘The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes’ and nearly 50 years later it had been salvaged. The prop of the monster had sunk to the bottom of the Loch because director, Billy Wilder, wanted his version of Nessie to not feature any humps and only the neck and head of the creature was to be seen out of the water. Billy Wilder was unhappy with the prop featuring two humps and ordered that they needed to be cut off from the model. As a result, the Loch Ness Monster model ending up sinking beneath the waves and a new model was required to be created in a hurry. The discovery of the model must have been a great disappointment to Nessie believers as any hard physical evidence still seems yet to be found. In a 1996 film cleverly titled, ‘Loch Ness’, starring Ted Danson (probably best known for his roles in the sitcom, Cheers, and comedy series, the Good Place) plays the role of Scientist Dr. John Dempsey who is asked to travel to Loch Ness and dispel the centuries-old myth of the Loch Ness Monster. In the Movie, Danson’s character teams up with another scientist who has a strong belief in Nessie and is determined to prove its existence. Fictionally, the movie suggests that an underground cavern exists beneath Urquhart Castle and that the creature dwells within – so perhaps if you find yourself wandering the area be on the lookout as Nessie could very well be under your feet! The movie was only partially filmed around Loch Ness and the village scenes were actually shot in Lower Diabaig near Torridon.	2,514	ENGLISH	1
Despite great obstacles, Jews throughout occupied Europe attempted armed resistance against the Germans and their Axis partners. They faced overwhelming odds and desperate scenarios, including lack of weapons and training, operating in hostile zones, parting from family members, and facing an ever-present Nazi terror. Yet thousands resisted by joining or forming partisan units. Among them was Jeff Gradow. Jeff Gradow was born in 1925 in a small town near Warsaw. When Germany invaded Poland in 1939, he and his father fled east into Soviet territory. In east Poland, his father got work in a factory in Bialystok and Jeff went to Russian school, soon becoming fluent in the language. When Germany invaded the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa) in 1941, Jeff was taken to work as a laborer for the Germans, digging mass graves that he feared would be his own. Eventually, Jeff took his chances and escaped into the forest. The partisan encampment he found lacked weapons and intelligence contacts needed to target nearby German troops. However, in the spring of 1943 the Soviets made contact with the group, airdropping weapons and explosives to them and sending in professional Russian paratroopers, armed with shortwave radios. Reorganized by the paratroopers and boasting a much larger stockpile, the brigade began to fight in earnest. They carried out hit and run sniper attacks, mined roads, and cut phone lines. As the front began to move west, the brigade stood guard over the local bridges, preventing them from being destroyed by retreating Germans and holding them long enough to allow the Soviet tanks to cross. In the summer of 1944, Bialystok and Baronovichi were liberated by the Soviets and Jeff’s partisan group was absorbed by the Red Army. He was sent to the front and later discharged after being shot in the hand by a sniper. He was sent to a hospital outside of Moscow to convalesce and by the time he recovered, Berlin was occupied and the war was almost over. He fled Russia and entered West Germany, eventually making his way to the United States and settling in Los Angeles. He passed away on June 23, 2014. He is survived by two children and three grandchildren. Critical Thinking Questions - What obstacles and limitations did Jews face when considering resistance? - What pressures and motivations may have influenced Jeff Gradow's decisions and actions? Are these factors unique to this history or universal? - How can societies, communities, and individuals reinforce and strengthen the willingness to stand up for others?	<urn:uuid:c3e0d9cf-e9f0-4492-a010-9f4a45f87d89>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/jeff-gradow	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00268.warc.gz	en	0.980481	510	3.625	4	[ -0.4574953615665436, 0.5049859285354614, -0.13750551640987396, 0.31834176182746887, 0.17770472168922424, 0.20318324863910675, -0.06599293649196625, 0.39658960700035095, -0.6603046655654907, -0.24644172191619873, 0.08441860973834991, -0.02453983575105667, 0.08492816984653473, 0.25674745440483093, -0.231019988656044, 0.08003819733858109, -0.6389046311378479, 0.24379423260688782, -0.9570990204811096, 0.11893177032470703, -0.4674307405948639, -0.2183670550584793, 0.9163923859596252, -0.21546542644500732, 0.19727812707424164, 0.2422427237033844, 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They faced overwhelming odds and desperate scenarios, including lack of weapons and training, operating in hostile zones, parting from family members, and facing an ever-present Nazi terror. Yet thousands resisted by joining or forming partisan units. Among them was Jeff Gradow. Jeff Gradow was born in 1925 in a small town near Warsaw. When Germany invaded Poland in 1939, he and his father fled east into Soviet territory. In east Poland, his father got work in a factory in Bialystok and Jeff went to Russian school, soon becoming fluent in the language. When Germany invaded the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa) in 1941, Jeff was taken to work as a laborer for the Germans, digging mass graves that he feared would be his own. Eventually, Jeff took his chances and escaped into the forest. The partisan encampment he found lacked weapons and intelligence contacts needed to target nearby German troops. However, in the spring of 1943 the Soviets made contact with the group, airdropping weapons and explosives to them and sending in professional Russian paratroopers, armed with shortwave radios. Reorganized by the paratroopers and boasting a much larger stockpile, the brigade began to fight in earnest. They carried out hit and run sniper attacks, mined roads, and cut phone lines. As the front began to move west, the brigade stood guard over the local bridges, preventing them from being destroyed by retreating Germans and holding them long enough to allow the Soviet tanks to cross. In the summer of 1944, Bialystok and Baronovichi were liberated by the Soviets and Jeff’s partisan group was absorbed by the Red Army. He was sent to the front and later discharged after being shot in the hand by a sniper. He was sent to a hospital outside of Moscow to convalesce and by the time he recovered, Berlin was occupied and the war was almost over. He fled Russia and entered West Germany, eventually making his way to the United States and settling in Los Angeles. He passed away on June 23, 2014. He is survived by two children and three grandchildren. Critical Thinking Questions - What obstacles and limitations did Jews face when considering resistance? - What pressures and motivations may have influenced Jeff Gradow's decisions and actions? Are these factors unique to this history or universal? - How can societies, communities, and individuals reinforce and strengthen the willingness to stand up for others?	525	ENGLISH	1
Thoth was considered one of the most important deities of the Egyptian pantheon. In art, he was often depicted as a man with the head of an ibis or a baboon, animals sacred to him. As in the main picture, Thoth is almost always shown holding a Was (a wand or rod symbolizing power) in one hand and an Ankh (the key of the Nile symbolizing life) in the other hand. His feminine counterpart was Seshat, and his wife was Ma'at. Thoth's chief temple was located in the city of Khmun, later called Hermopolis Magna. Thoth played many vital and prominent roles in Egyptian mythology, such as maintaining the universe, and being one of the two deities (the other being Ma'at) who stood on either side of Ra's boat. 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In art, he was often depicted as a man with the head of an ibis or a baboon, animals sacred to him. As in the main picture, Thoth is almost always shown holding a Was (a wand or rod symbolizing power) in one hand and an Ankh (the key of the Nile symbolizing life) in the other hand. His feminine counterpart was Seshat, and his wife was Ma'at. Thoth's chief temple was located in the city of Khmun, later called Hermopolis Magna. Thoth played many vital and prominent roles in Egyptian mythology, such as maintaining the universe, and being one of the two deities (the other being Ma'at) who stood on either side of Ra's boat. In the later history of ancient Egypt, Thoth became heavily associated with the arbitration of godly disputes, the arts of magic, the system of writing, the development of science, and the judgment of the dead.	215	ENGLISH	1
In all actuality, the nursing profession has been around since the beginning of time. It is thought that the first inception of the nursing field was during 300 A.D. during the Roman Empire. The “nurses” at this time would go to their patient’s homes and treat them there. There was no formal doctor’s office or meeting place for this profession. Fast forward to the Middle Ages, this is when medical advancements started to take place. Most of the nurses were nuns and monks. There were a number of different hospitals at this time, and because of nurses’ roles during this time, the hospital systems we now know began to take shape. Without these advancements in the healthcare field, there might have never been the field of nursing in the medical world! However, these influential nurses paved the way for the field we know today and organization that are known globally. 1. A nurse that is globally known as one of the most important nurses in history is Florence Nightingale. In the 1900s, nurses were more important than ever before. This is because of the Civil and Crimean Wars. At the time, death to lack of hygiene (what we know now as Hospital Acquired Infections) was killing more soldiers than the wounds. Nightingale asked for support from the British Government to keep the areas sanitized. She was known as an advocate for sanitary conditions in hospitals and on the battlefields for her patients. 2. An important male nurse that led the way for males in the nursing profession was Edward T. Lyon. He became the first male nurse in the Army Nurse Corps in the US. He helped for other males to be recognized in the profession and to hold higher positions and standards. 3. One of the first registered African American nurses in the United States was Mary Eliza Mahoney. She worked in a variety of different positions at the New England Hospital for Women and Children in Roxbury. At 33 years old, she decided to start her nursing career. Mahoney was one of the founding members of the Nurses Associated Alumnae of the United States and Canada; which we all know now as the American Nurses Association (ANA). 4. The first African American nurse ever was Susie King Taylor! She was born into slavery in 1848. She attended a secret and illegal school where Taylor learned to read and write. At first, she was a teacher for freed African American children in the North, and then, was asked to be a nurse with the First Regiment of South Carolina Volunteers. This is known today as the 33rd Regiment U.S. Colored Troops. Taylor showed the rest of the world at this time and still to this day that freed slaves could achieve so much more in life! These nurses and so many others throughout history have changed the medical field for the better. It’s with their intelligence, voices for patient advocating, ambition, and more that the nursing field is the way it is today! Furthermore, because of these advances in the field, it also led the way to advances in science, technology, and medicine. FlowCARE Nurse Server is a patent-pending nurse server made in the United States. Our nurse server replace the old ways of nurse servers, and make nurses and other healthcare professionals lives easier. For more information, contact us today! A patient goes in for a simple procedure or surgery and days later is readmitted because of a sickness or infection. An issue this common poses another problem: how can healthcare professionals stop the spread of HAIs in hospitals?continue Reading Achoo, the cold and flu season is in full swing!continue Reading Hospitals work hard each and every day of the year to heal vulnerable patients. With many patients comes many medical supplies, but medical supplies must be reused and cleaned after each patient to ensure proper sanitation. However, this is not always the case, as hospital acquired infections (HAI’s) account for 99,000 deaths in United States hospitals each yeacontinue Reading	<urn:uuid:00006ee0-d7d5-4970-823d-eed7e3b46913>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.flowcaresolutions.com/blog/article/the-most-influential-nurses-throughout-the-years	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00243.warc.gz	en	0.9809	829	3.359375	3	[ -0.3233656585216522, 0.24333666265010834, 0.5317946672439575, -0.4221814274787903, 0.10211946070194244, 0.1912882775068283, 0.3303568959236145, 0.21370327472686768, -0.08165677636861801, 0.1527632623910904, -0.008894922211766243, 0.03891747444868088, -0.4407844543457031, 0.21833565831184387, -0.1552686095237732, -0.07395922392606735, -0.43919599056243896, 0.3352772295475006, -0.8614859580993652, 0.3605119585990906, 0.23802262544631958, -0.13195869326591492, 0.307569682598114, 0.12877482175827026, 0.4567188322544098, 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It is thought that the first inception of the nursing field was during 300 A.D. during the Roman Empire. The “nurses” at this time would go to their patient’s homes and treat them there. There was no formal doctor’s office or meeting place for this profession. Fast forward to the Middle Ages, this is when medical advancements started to take place. Most of the nurses were nuns and monks. There were a number of different hospitals at this time, and because of nurses’ roles during this time, the hospital systems we now know began to take shape. Without these advancements in the healthcare field, there might have never been the field of nursing in the medical world! However, these influential nurses paved the way for the field we know today and organization that are known globally. 1. A nurse that is globally known as one of the most important nurses in history is Florence Nightingale. In the 1900s, nurses were more important than ever before. This is because of the Civil and Crimean Wars. At the time, death to lack of hygiene (what we know now as Hospital Acquired Infections) was killing more soldiers than the wounds. Nightingale asked for support from the British Government to keep the areas sanitized. She was known as an advocate for sanitary conditions in hospitals and on the battlefields for her patients. 2. An important male nurse that led the way for males in the nursing profession was Edward T. Lyon. He became the first male nurse in the Army Nurse Corps in the US. He helped for other males to be recognized in the profession and to hold higher positions and standards. 3. One of the first registered African American nurses in the United States was Mary Eliza Mahoney. She worked in a variety of different positions at the New England Hospital for Women and Children in Roxbury. At 33 years old, she decided to start her nursing career. Mahoney was one of the founding members of the Nurses Associated Alumnae of the United States and Canada; which we all know now as the American Nurses Association (ANA). 4. The first African American nurse ever was Susie King Taylor! She was born into slavery in 1848. She attended a secret and illegal school where Taylor learned to read and write. At first, she was a teacher for freed African American children in the North, and then, was asked to be a nurse with the First Regiment of South Carolina Volunteers. This is known today as the 33rd Regiment U.S. Colored Troops. Taylor showed the rest of the world at this time and still to this day that freed slaves could achieve so much more in life! These nurses and so many others throughout history have changed the medical field for the better. It’s with their intelligence, voices for patient advocating, ambition, and more that the nursing field is the way it is today! Furthermore, because of these advances in the field, it also led the way to advances in science, technology, and medicine. FlowCARE Nurse Server is a patent-pending nurse server made in the United States. Our nurse server replace the old ways of nurse servers, and make nurses and other healthcare professionals lives easier. For more information, contact us today! A patient goes in for a simple procedure or surgery and days later is readmitted because of a sickness or infection. An issue this common poses another problem: how can healthcare professionals stop the spread of HAIs in hospitals?continue Reading Achoo, the cold and flu season is in full swing!continue Reading Hospitals work hard each and every day of the year to heal vulnerable patients. With many patients comes many medical supplies, but medical supplies must be reused and cleaned after each patient to ensure proper sanitation. However, this is not always the case, as hospital acquired infections (HAI’s) account for 99,000 deaths in United States hospitals each yeacontinue Reading	820	ENGLISH	1
Dare To Ride Because this was a British Rail project, the intended purpose of the flying saucer was to lift passengers, with cargo as an afterthought. The diagrams on file with the Patent Office show the craft configured to carry approximately 60 passengers, though the number of seats is not specified. The upper compartment was circular, with a thick central column on the axis of the ship. Passengers were to sit with their backs to the walls like riders in a tilt-a-whirl and face inward. Round portholes ringed the compartment at about head height for a view of the inevitable space gremlins attacking the fuselage. The deck of the passenger compartment may have been the single heaviest thing on the ship. Had the thing been built, the deck would have had to have been made from a solid slab of lead eight feet thick and weighing hundreds of tons. This was to prevent deadly ionizing radiation, such as all nuclear reactions generate, from penetrating the compartment and killing everyone aboard. As thick as it was, even this slab wouldn’t have been enough, which the designer seems to have thought of; in addition to the physical shielding, the craft also used an exotic magnetic deflection system (which hadn’t been invented yet) to shunt some charged particles to the top of the saucer where, in theory, they would be safely vented in the same way solar particles are caught by the Earth’s magnetic field. This means that once the ship powered up and erected its force field, the top of it would have glowed like the aurora borealis. This would have been hauntingly beautiful, except that anyone standing outside of the shield to see it would probably have been killed within minutes from the radiation poisoning.	<urn:uuid:36cdfb0b-2a59-4da6-9887-5bd15da43424>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://allthatsinteresting.com/british-rail-flying-saucer/2	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00488.warc.gz	en	0.981171	360	4.03125	4	[ -0.12141268700361252, 0.0548633448779583, 0.32071056962013245, -0.10729823261499405, -0.03439733758568764, -0.17600864171981812, 0.4173467755317688, 0.33698102831840515, -0.312000572681427, -0.5653027892112732, 0.02072170376777649, -0.2388831526041031, -0.12309896945953369, 0.18197154998779297, -0.3615386188030243, 0.08652609586715698, -0.3709449768066406, 0.255625456571579, -0.44648417830467224, 0.12835246324539185, 0.42742225527763367, -0.4501560926437378, -0.11223325878381729, -0.2683192193508148, -0.005613243207335472, 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The diagrams on file with the Patent Office show the craft configured to carry approximately 60 passengers, though the number of seats is not specified. The upper compartment was circular, with a thick central column on the axis of the ship. Passengers were to sit with their backs to the walls like riders in a tilt-a-whirl and face inward. Round portholes ringed the compartment at about head height for a view of the inevitable space gremlins attacking the fuselage. The deck of the passenger compartment may have been the single heaviest thing on the ship. Had the thing been built, the deck would have had to have been made from a solid slab of lead eight feet thick and weighing hundreds of tons. This was to prevent deadly ionizing radiation, such as all nuclear reactions generate, from penetrating the compartment and killing everyone aboard. As thick as it was, even this slab wouldn’t have been enough, which the designer seems to have thought of; in addition to the physical shielding, the craft also used an exotic magnetic deflection system (which hadn’t been invented yet) to shunt some charged particles to the top of the saucer where, in theory, they would be safely vented in the same way solar particles are caught by the Earth’s magnetic field. This means that once the ship powered up and erected its force field, the top of it would have glowed like the aurora borealis. This would have been hauntingly beautiful, except that anyone standing outside of the shield to see it would probably have been killed within minutes from the radiation poisoning.	351	ENGLISH	1
This post is part of our ongoing series featuring the works of Professor LeBoeuf 's students! Confucius is a well-known figure not only in China, but worldwide. He was a great Chinese teacher, politician, and philosopher who lived during the Zhou Dynasty and the Spring and Autumn period in Chinese history. He lived to be 72 years old and left a great legacy and way of life behind to live on for eternity. Confucius’ birth name was Kongfuzi which means Master Kong, but “Confucius” is a Latinized form of Mandarin Chinese that was coined in the late 16th century by Jesuit Missionaries in China. Confucius was born into the Shi class, a class between aristocracy and commoners, on September 28th, 551 BCE in Qufu, which is located in the Shandong Providence in China. Confucius’ parents were Kong He, an officer in the Lu state military, and Yan Zhengzai. Confucius’ father died when Confucius was 3 years old and his mother was left to raise him in poverty until she passed when Confucius was 23 years old. Even though Confucius was raised in poverty, he still managed to become an educated and learned man. He attended school intended for commoners and not only learned but excelled in the required Six Arts of the Chinese Confucius started his own family at a relatively young age. He married Qiguan at 19 years old and had three children together. The couple had one son, Kong Li, and two daughters, one daughter is believed to have died in infancy. Confucius had a few odd jobs in his early adult life including: a book keeper, cowherd, and clerk. In his early 30’s, he worked as a teacher. Confucius was very enthusiastic about education. He believed that education was not only gaining scholarly knowledge but was also a method of improving and building one’s character. Confucius had such a great passion for education that he made it his goal to make teaching a vocation along with making education broadly available to everyone. Additionally, Confucius was involved in politics during his late 40’s to early 50’s, but his involvement was very short-lived. He became involved in the Lu state government where he held various positions such as a magistrate, an Assistant Minister of Public Works, and a Minister of Justice. In becoming involved in politics, Confucius hoped to establish a centralized government by redirecting the power held by the three aristocratic families of the time from them to the duke. Neighboring states feared that Confucius’ actions would cause the Lu state to become a central power in the area. So, these neighboring states interfered by distracting the duke of the Lu state to prevent him from signing and passing Confucius’ policies. At this time, Confucius realized that the duke was not fulfilling his duties and opted to leave the state in self-exile. At the time of his departure, he left with a following of students that gradually grew as the years went by. Throughout these years of self-exile, Confucius worked toward educating his followers on a way of life that he later developed into the philosophy that is known as Confucianism today. As mentioned beforehand, Confucius was very focused on developing character via education and developed his philosophy based on that along with the influence of Chinese traditions like ancestor worship, loyalty to family, and respecting one’s elders. Additionally, he introduced the concepts of benevolence, ritual, and propriety also known as jen, li, and yi. Confucius returned to the Lu state at age 68, but soon after his return, his son, Kong Li, died along with many other of his followers and teachers that it was too much from Confucius to stand. Confucius became ill and died at the age of 72 in about 479 BCE. After Confucius’ death, his legacy continued through his followers who established the Analects filed with his wisdom, lessons, and quotes. One of he more famous quotes by Confucius is commonly known as the “Golden Rule” which states, “Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself,” in other words treat others the way you want to be treated. Much like this quote, Confucius was filled with such sage and philosophical sayings that enamored his followers. However, it is important to note that Confucius did not believe that he was the founder of Confucianism, but more of a restorer or retransmitter. He did not think that he established of found something new rather than that he took something that was already present and gave it a mold and direction. His main philosophical concepts consisted of Ren referring to central teaching, Li meaning correct behavior, Xiao which means family conduct, and Zhong meaning loyalty. About Alondra Chavira She is currently a second-year student majoring in Biology on the premed track. She is a first-generation student and aspire to be a doctor specializing in either cardiology or pediatrics. An interesting fact about her is that although she was born in the United States where the national language is English, her first language was Spanish.	<urn:uuid:8c4cba08-7a50-43ee-b99b-dad733ff24df>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.engagedgaze.com/single-post/2018/07/17/Getting-to-Know-Confucius	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00150.warc.gz	en	0.992313	1,106	4	4	[ -0.5207574367523193, 0.35291147232055664, 0.3302585482597351, -0.34853821992874146, 0.006932355463504791, 0.007893946953117847, 0.31945353746414185, 0.09071321040391922, -0.01941981166601181, -0.11156105995178223, 0.24873048067092896, -0.43770307302474976, 0.4052506387233734, 0.2450091540813446, 0.10639697313308716, -0.02480054646730423, -0.4119291603565216, 0.4433702230453491, -0.6457185745239258, -0.0006234548054635525, 0.673332929611206, -0.6272504329681396, -0.447953462600708, -0.45810773968696594, 0.33062872290611267, 0.5072765946388245, 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Confucius is a well-known figure not only in China, but worldwide. He was a great Chinese teacher, politician, and philosopher who lived during the Zhou Dynasty and the Spring and Autumn period in Chinese history. He lived to be 72 years old and left a great legacy and way of life behind to live on for eternity. Confucius’ birth name was Kongfuzi which means Master Kong, but “Confucius” is a Latinized form of Mandarin Chinese that was coined in the late 16th century by Jesuit Missionaries in China. Confucius was born into the Shi class, a class between aristocracy and commoners, on September 28th, 551 BCE in Qufu, which is located in the Shandong Providence in China. Confucius’ parents were Kong He, an officer in the Lu state military, and Yan Zhengzai. Confucius’ father died when Confucius was 3 years old and his mother was left to raise him in poverty until she passed when Confucius was 23 years old. Even though Confucius was raised in poverty, he still managed to become an educated and learned man. He attended school intended for commoners and not only learned but excelled in the required Six Arts of the Chinese Confucius started his own family at a relatively young age. He married Qiguan at 19 years old and had three children together. The couple had one son, Kong Li, and two daughters, one daughter is believed to have died in infancy. Confucius had a few odd jobs in his early adult life including: a book keeper, cowherd, and clerk. In his early 30’s, he worked as a teacher. Confucius was very enthusiastic about education. He believed that education was not only gaining scholarly knowledge but was also a method of improving and building one’s character. Confucius had such a great passion for education that he made it his goal to make teaching a vocation along with making education broadly available to everyone. Additionally, Confucius was involved in politics during his late 40’s to early 50’s, but his involvement was very short-lived. He became involved in the Lu state government where he held various positions such as a magistrate, an Assistant Minister of Public Works, and a Minister of Justice. In becoming involved in politics, Confucius hoped to establish a centralized government by redirecting the power held by the three aristocratic families of the time from them to the duke. Neighboring states feared that Confucius’ actions would cause the Lu state to become a central power in the area. So, these neighboring states interfered by distracting the duke of the Lu state to prevent him from signing and passing Confucius’ policies. At this time, Confucius realized that the duke was not fulfilling his duties and opted to leave the state in self-exile. At the time of his departure, he left with a following of students that gradually grew as the years went by. Throughout these years of self-exile, Confucius worked toward educating his followers on a way of life that he later developed into the philosophy that is known as Confucianism today. As mentioned beforehand, Confucius was very focused on developing character via education and developed his philosophy based on that along with the influence of Chinese traditions like ancestor worship, loyalty to family, and respecting one’s elders. Additionally, he introduced the concepts of benevolence, ritual, and propriety also known as jen, li, and yi. Confucius returned to the Lu state at age 68, but soon after his return, his son, Kong Li, died along with many other of his followers and teachers that it was too much from Confucius to stand. Confucius became ill and died at the age of 72 in about 479 BCE. After Confucius’ death, his legacy continued through his followers who established the Analects filed with his wisdom, lessons, and quotes. One of he more famous quotes by Confucius is commonly known as the “Golden Rule” which states, “Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself,” in other words treat others the way you want to be treated. Much like this quote, Confucius was filled with such sage and philosophical sayings that enamored his followers. However, it is important to note that Confucius did not believe that he was the founder of Confucianism, but more of a restorer or retransmitter. He did not think that he established of found something new rather than that he took something that was already present and gave it a mold and direction. His main philosophical concepts consisted of Ren referring to central teaching, Li meaning correct behavior, Xiao which means family conduct, and Zhong meaning loyalty. About Alondra Chavira She is currently a second-year student majoring in Biology on the premed track. She is a first-generation student and aspire to be a doctor specializing in either cardiology or pediatrics. An interesting fact about her is that although she was born in the United States where the national language is English, her first language was Spanish.	1,096	ENGLISH	1
At first William ruled England with moderation. The laws and customs were not changed, and in a few months after the battle of Hastings the kingdom was so peaceful that William left it in charge of his brother and went to Normandy for a visit. While he was gone many of the English nobles rebelled against him, and on his return he made very severe laws and did some very harsh things. He laid waste an extensive territory, destroying all the houses upon it and causing thousands of persons to die from lack of food and shelter, because the people there had not sworn allegiance to him. He made a law that all lights should be put out and fires covered with ashes at eight o'clock every evening, so that the people would have to go to bed then. A bell was rung in all cities and towns throughout England to warn the people of the hour. The bell was called the "curfew, " from the French words "couvre feu, " meaning "to cover fire." To find out about the lands of England and their owners, so that everybody might be made to pay taxes, he appointed officers in all the towns to report what estates there were, who owned them, and what they were worth. The reports were copied into two volumes, called the "Domesday Book." This book showed that England at that time had a population of a little more than a million. William made war on Scotland , and conquered it. During a war with the king of France the city of Mantes ( mont ) was burned by William's soldiers. As William rode over the ruins his horse stumbled and the king was thrown to the ground and injured. He was borne to Rouen , where he lay ill for six weeks. His sons and even his attendants abandoned him in his last hours. It is said that in his death struggle he fell from his bed to the floor, where his body was found by his servants.	<urn:uuid:5ee614a9-41d5-4b55-8d6e-47aeb0905c6b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://e-reading.mobi/chapter.php/70959/70/Haaren_-_Famous_Men_of_The_Middle_Ages.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00426.warc.gz	en	0.994606	392	3.78125	4	[ -0.08575110882520676, 0.3837088942527771, 0.5212746262550354, -0.2651101350784302, 0.07791761308908463, -0.30425360798835754, 0.1854485720396042, -0.22013598680496216, 0.0479106567800045, -0.011160950176417828, -0.2212613821029663, -0.10784171521663666, -0.0041382466442883015, 0.34001433849334717, -0.09901898354291916, -0.09528810530900955, -0.31485965847969055, 0.14751175045967102, -1.0442484617233276, 0.3512028455734253, 0.4642656445503235, 0.13917429745197296, -0.0744052529335022, -0.017078397795557976, 0.22606652975082397, 0.22503773868083954, 0.14446258544921875, 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The laws and customs were not changed, and in a few months after the battle of Hastings the kingdom was so peaceful that William left it in charge of his brother and went to Normandy for a visit. While he was gone many of the English nobles rebelled against him, and on his return he made very severe laws and did some very harsh things. He laid waste an extensive territory, destroying all the houses upon it and causing thousands of persons to die from lack of food and shelter, because the people there had not sworn allegiance to him. He made a law that all lights should be put out and fires covered with ashes at eight o'clock every evening, so that the people would have to go to bed then. A bell was rung in all cities and towns throughout England to warn the people of the hour. The bell was called the "curfew, " from the French words "couvre feu, " meaning "to cover fire." To find out about the lands of England and their owners, so that everybody might be made to pay taxes, he appointed officers in all the towns to report what estates there were, who owned them, and what they were worth. The reports were copied into two volumes, called the "Domesday Book." This book showed that England at that time had a population of a little more than a million. William made war on Scotland , and conquered it. During a war with the king of France the city of Mantes ( mont ) was burned by William's soldiers. As William rode over the ruins his horse stumbled and the king was thrown to the ground and injured. He was borne to Rouen , where he lay ill for six weeks. His sons and even his attendants abandoned him in his last hours. It is said that in his death struggle he fell from his bed to the floor, where his body was found by his servants.	388	ENGLISH	1
This week’s reading describes the miracle of the Mahn (Manna), the miraculous bread which G-d gave to our ancestors to eat in the desert. The people said they were hungry, they complained, and they were given an open miracle in return — along with instructions. They were told to gather only what they needed for the day, except on the sixth day, when they were told to gather a double portion for the Sabbath. So almost everybody did exactly what they were told to do. But the Torah tells us that “they didn’t listen to Moses, and men left it over until morning, and it became wormy” [Ex. 16:25]. Who didn’t listen? The Medrash tells us: Dasan and Aviram. You just have to ask, who were these guys? In modern language, what was their problem? We first meet Dasan and Aviram much earlier. Moses goes out and sees an Egyptian beating a Jew, and in order to protect his brother from death, he kills the Egyptian. The next day, he finds Dasan and Aviram fighting with each other, and he says to the attacker, why are you hitting your friend? He answers back, “who made you ruler and judge over us? Are you saying you’re going to kill me like you killed the Egyptian?” The Medrash says that what Moses found so frightening about this exchange is that there were wicked people, informers among the Jews. But they weren’t simply informers, they were troublemakers at every opportunity. They finally met their end during the rebellion of Korach, which they joined. Korach was jealous of Moses and Aharon for the honor they received. But if Korach had become the leader instead, Dasan and Aviram would still have been simply members of the tribe of Reuven. What did they stand to gain from getting involved in the argument? They were obviously sincere to a certain degree, because they merited to be part of the Exodus. But they could not get over their desire to challenge authority, apparently simply for its own sake. Even on something so trivial as gathering extra Mahn, they couldn’t resist seeing if they could find a flaw in the orders Moses gave them. And that was the same trait that eventually led to their deaths in Korach’s rebellion. But that’s not really relevant to us today, is it? I mean after all, we don’t find people today, apparently well-meaning in some way, but acting out, against authority, just “because,” do we? Or perhaps it is more common than ever.	<urn:uuid:0a0efc3b-cf68-49c5-91c6-32d39f51baf3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://projectgenesis.org/888/challenging-authority-for-its-own-sake/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00495.warc.gz	en	0.989376	564	3.4375	3	[ -0.45762768387794495, 0.49862852692604065, -0.4126109778881073, 0.381537526845932, -0.1335245817899704, -0.23790693283081055, 0.5451470017433167, 0.12826108932495117, -0.34129631519317627, 0.06683690845966339, 0.011178120970726013, -0.38706451654434204, -0.25585615634918213, 0.10684844851493835, 0.5996729135513306, 0.21849092841148376, -0.1768372803926468, 0.317180871963501, -1.0526981353759766, 0.15430250763893127, 0.14876604080200195, -0.28777724504470825, 0.2312052994966507, -0.10473519563674927, 0.18632803857326508, 0.26129114627838135, -0.04513593763113022, -0.14327596127986908, -0.22112995386123657, -1.836762547492981, -0.4287365972995758, 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The people said they were hungry, they complained, and they were given an open miracle in return — along with instructions. They were told to gather only what they needed for the day, except on the sixth day, when they were told to gather a double portion for the Sabbath. So almost everybody did exactly what they were told to do. But the Torah tells us that “they didn’t listen to Moses, and men left it over until morning, and it became wormy” [Ex. 16:25]. Who didn’t listen? The Medrash tells us: Dasan and Aviram. You just have to ask, who were these guys? In modern language, what was their problem? We first meet Dasan and Aviram much earlier. Moses goes out and sees an Egyptian beating a Jew, and in order to protect his brother from death, he kills the Egyptian. The next day, he finds Dasan and Aviram fighting with each other, and he says to the attacker, why are you hitting your friend? He answers back, “who made you ruler and judge over us? Are you saying you’re going to kill me like you killed the Egyptian?” The Medrash says that what Moses found so frightening about this exchange is that there were wicked people, informers among the Jews. But they weren’t simply informers, they were troublemakers at every opportunity. They finally met their end during the rebellion of Korach, which they joined. Korach was jealous of Moses and Aharon for the honor they received. But if Korach had become the leader instead, Dasan and Aviram would still have been simply members of the tribe of Reuven. What did they stand to gain from getting involved in the argument? They were obviously sincere to a certain degree, because they merited to be part of the Exodus. But they could not get over their desire to challenge authority, apparently simply for its own sake. Even on something so trivial as gathering extra Mahn, they couldn’t resist seeing if they could find a flaw in the orders Moses gave them. And that was the same trait that eventually led to their deaths in Korach’s rebellion. But that’s not really relevant to us today, is it? I mean after all, we don’t find people today, apparently well-meaning in some way, but acting out, against authority, just “because,” do we? Or perhaps it is more common than ever.	529	ENGLISH	1
Who Is John Lewis? John Lewis grew up in an era of racial segregation. Inspired by Martin Luther King Jr., he joined the burgeoning Civil Rights Movement. Lewis was a Freedom Rider, spoke at 1963's March on Washington and led the demonstration that became known as "Bloody Sunday." He was elected to Congress in 1986 and received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2011. John Robert Lewis was born outside of Troy, Alabama, on February 21, 1940. Lewis had a happy childhood — though he needed to work hard to assist his sharecropper parents —but he chafed against the unfairness of segregation. He was particularly disappointed when the Supreme Court ruling in 1954's Brown v. The Board of Education didn't affect his school life. However, hearing Martin Luther King Jr.'s sermons and news of the 1955-56 Montgomery bus boycott inspired Lewis to act for the changes he wanted to see. Civil Rights Struggle In 1957, Lewis left Alabama to attend the American Baptist Theological Seminary in Nashville, Tennessee. There, he learned about nonviolent protest and helped to organize sit-ins at segregated lunch counters. He was arrested during these demonstrations, which upset his mother, but Lewis was committed to the Civil Rights Movement and went on to participate in the Freedom Rides of 1961. Freedom Riders challenged the segregated facilities they encountered at interstate bus terminals in the South, which had been deemed illegal by the Supreme Court. It was dangerous work that resulted in arrests and beatings for many involved, including Lewis. In 1963, Lewis became chairman of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. That same year, as one of the "Big Six" leaders of the Civil Rights Movement, he helped plan the March on Washington. Lewis—the youngest speaker at the event—had to alter his speech in order to please other organizers, but still delivered a powerful oration that declared, "We all recognize the fact that if any radical social, political and economic changes are to take place in our society, the people, the masses, must bring them about." After the March on Washington, in 1964, the Civil Rights Act became law. However, this did not make it easier for African Americans to vote in the South. To bring attention to this struggle, Lewis and Hosea Williams led a march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama, on March 7, 1965. After crossing the Edmund Pettus Bridge, the marchers were attacked by state troopers. Lewis was severely beaten once more, this time suffering a fractured skull. The violent attacks were recorded and disseminated throughout the country, and the images proved too powerful to ignore. "Bloody Sunday," as the day was labeled, sped up the passage of 1965's Voting Rights Act. Rep. John Lewis Lewis left the SNCC in 1966. Though devastated by the assassinations of King and Robert Kennedy in 1968, Lewis continued his work to enfranchise minorities. In 1970, he became director of the Voter Education Project. During his tenure, the VEP helped to register millions of minority voters. Lewis ran for office himself in 1981, winning a seat on the Atlanta City Council. In 1986, he was elected to the House of Representatives. Today, representing Georgia's 5th District, he is one of the most respected members of Congress. Since entering office, he has called for healthcare reform, measures to fight poverty and improvements in education. Most importantly, he oversaw multiple renewals of the Voting Rights Act. When the Supreme Court struck down part of the law in 2013's Shelby County v. Holder, Lewis decried the decision as a "dagger into the heart" of voting rights. In the wake of the mass shooting that took place on June 12, 2016, in Orlando, Florida, Lewis led a sit-in comprised of approximately 40 House Democrats on the floor of the House of Representatives on June 22nd in an attempt to bring attention and force Congress to address gun violence by taking definitive legislative action. “We have been too quiet for too long,” Lewis said. “There comes a time when you have to say something. You have to make a little noise. You have to move your feet. This is the time.” The protest came just days after several measures including a bill regarding background checks and adding restrictions on the purchase of guns by people on the federal no-fly list, failed in the Senate. Senator Chris Murphy applauded the protest. Murphy had previously led a filibuster in the Senate which led to the subsequent vote. Lewis also spoke out against the presidency of Donald Trump, who was elected on November 8, 2016. In an interview with Chuck Todd for NBC News’ Meet the Press, which aired on January 15, 2017, Lewis said he didn’t believe Trump was a “legitimate president” because of Russian interference in the election. “I think the Russians participated in helping this man get elected and they helped destroy the candidacy of Hillary Clinton,” Lewis said in the interview. He also said he would not attend Trump’s inauguration. Trump John Lewis Tweet Trump responded on Twitter, criticizing Lewis’ work as a congressman and tweeting that Lewis was “All talk, talk, talk - no action or results. Sad!” The president-elect's attack on Lewis came just days before the Martin Luther King holiday, and prompted vocal support of the civil rights icon across social media. Several Democratic lawmakers also joined in support of Lewis, and boycotted Trump’s inauguration. Trump continued his war of words, tweeting: “John Lewis said about my inauguration, ‘It will be the first one that I've missed.’ WRONG (or lie)! He boycotted Bush 43 also because he...thought it would be hypocritical to attend Bush's swearing-in....he doesn't believe Bush is the true elected president. Sound familiar!” A spokeswoman for Lewis confirmed that he had missed the inauguration of George W. Bush: "His absence at that time was also a form of dissent. He did not believe the outcome of that election, including the controversies around the results in Florida and the unprecedented intervention of the U.S. Supreme Court, reflected a free, fair and open democratic process.” In December 2019, Lewis announced that he had been diagnosed with Stage 4 pancreatic cancer. Although he was "clear-eyed about the prognosis," Lewis said he felt encouraged that medical advancements had made this type of cancer treatable in many cases, adding that he intended to return to work as soon as possible. Though the Supreme Court's decision about the Voting Rights Act was a blow to Lewis, he has been encouraged by the progress that has occurred in his lifetime. After Barack Obama won the presidency in 2008, Lewis stated that "When we were organizing voter-registration drives, going on the Freedom Rides, sitting in, coming here to Washington for the first time, getting arrested, going to jail, being beaten, I never thought—I never dreamed—of the possibility that an African American would one day be elected president of the United States." In addition to continuing his work in Congress, Lewis has reached out to a younger generation by helping to create a series of graphic novels about his work in the Civil Rights Movement. In 2016, he won the National Book Award for the third installment in the series March: Book Three, which marks the first time a graphic novel has received the honor. He accepted the award with co-writer Andrew Aydin and illustrator Nate Powell and spoke of its significance in an emotional acceptance speech. “Some of you know I grew up in rural Alabama, very poor, very few books in our home,” Lewis said. “I remember in 1956, when I was 16 years old, going to the public library to get library cards, and we were told the library was for whites only and not for coloreds. And to come here and receive this honor, it’s too much.” He also spoke about the importance of books in his life. “I had a wonderful teacher in elementary school who told me: ‘Read, my child, read’, and I tried to read everything," he said. "I love books.” The civil rights icon has also been honored with numerous awards, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the NAACP's Spingarn Medal and the sole John F. Kennedy "Profile in Courage Award" for Lifetime Achievement. We strive for accuracy and fairness. 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John Lewis grew up in an era of racial segregation. Inspired by Martin Luther King Jr., he joined the burgeoning Civil Rights Movement. Lewis was a Freedom Rider, spoke at 1963's March on Washington and led the demonstration that became known as "Bloody Sunday." He was elected to Congress in 1986 and received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2011. John Robert Lewis was born outside of Troy, Alabama, on February 21, 1940. Lewis had a happy childhood — though he needed to work hard to assist his sharecropper parents —but he chafed against the unfairness of segregation. He was particularly disappointed when the Supreme Court ruling in 1954's Brown v. The Board of Education didn't affect his school life. However, hearing Martin Luther King Jr.'s sermons and news of the 1955-56 Montgomery bus boycott inspired Lewis to act for the changes he wanted to see. Civil Rights Struggle In 1957, Lewis left Alabama to attend the American Baptist Theological Seminary in Nashville, Tennessee. There, he learned about nonviolent protest and helped to organize sit-ins at segregated lunch counters. He was arrested during these demonstrations, which upset his mother, but Lewis was committed to the Civil Rights Movement and went on to participate in the Freedom Rides of 1961. Freedom Riders challenged the segregated facilities they encountered at interstate bus terminals in the South, which had been deemed illegal by the Supreme Court. It was dangerous work that resulted in arrests and beatings for many involved, including Lewis. In 1963, Lewis became chairman of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. That same year, as one of the "Big Six" leaders of the Civil Rights Movement, he helped plan the March on Washington. Lewis—the youngest speaker at the event—had to alter his speech in order to please other organizers, but still delivered a powerful oration that declared, "We all recognize the fact that if any radical social, political and economic changes are to take place in our society, the people, the masses, must bring them about." After the March on Washington, in 1964, the Civil Rights Act became law. However, this did not make it easier for African Americans to vote in the South. To bring attention to this struggle, Lewis and Hosea Williams led a march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama, on March 7, 1965. After crossing the Edmund Pettus Bridge, the marchers were attacked by state troopers. Lewis was severely beaten once more, this time suffering a fractured skull. The violent attacks were recorded and disseminated throughout the country, and the images proved too powerful to ignore. "Bloody Sunday," as the day was labeled, sped up the passage of 1965's Voting Rights Act. Rep. John Lewis Lewis left the SNCC in 1966. Though devastated by the assassinations of King and Robert Kennedy in 1968, Lewis continued his work to enfranchise minorities. In 1970, he became director of the Voter Education Project. During his tenure, the VEP helped to register millions of minority voters. Lewis ran for office himself in 1981, winning a seat on the Atlanta City Council. In 1986, he was elected to the House of Representatives. Today, representing Georgia's 5th District, he is one of the most respected members of Congress. Since entering office, he has called for healthcare reform, measures to fight poverty and improvements in education. Most importantly, he oversaw multiple renewals of the Voting Rights Act. When the Supreme Court struck down part of the law in 2013's Shelby County v. Holder, Lewis decried the decision as a "dagger into the heart" of voting rights. In the wake of the mass shooting that took place on June 12, 2016, in Orlando, Florida, Lewis led a sit-in comprised of approximately 40 House Democrats on the floor of the House of Representatives on June 22nd in an attempt to bring attention and force Congress to address gun violence by taking definitive legislative action. “We have been too quiet for too long,” Lewis said. “There comes a time when you have to say something. You have to make a little noise. You have to move your feet. This is the time.” The protest came just days after several measures including a bill regarding background checks and adding restrictions on the purchase of guns by people on the federal no-fly list, failed in the Senate. Senator Chris Murphy applauded the protest. Murphy had previously led a filibuster in the Senate which led to the subsequent vote. Lewis also spoke out against the presidency of Donald Trump, who was elected on November 8, 2016. In an interview with Chuck Todd for NBC News’ Meet the Press, which aired on January 15, 2017, Lewis said he didn’t believe Trump was a “legitimate president” because of Russian interference in the election. “I think the Russians participated in helping this man get elected and they helped destroy the candidacy of Hillary Clinton,” Lewis said in the interview. He also said he would not attend Trump’s inauguration. Trump John Lewis Tweet Trump responded on Twitter, criticizing Lewis’ work as a congressman and tweeting that Lewis was “All talk, talk, talk - no action or results. Sad!” The president-elect's attack on Lewis came just days before the Martin Luther King holiday, and prompted vocal support of the civil rights icon across social media. Several Democratic lawmakers also joined in support of Lewis, and boycotted Trump’s inauguration. Trump continued his war of words, tweeting: “John Lewis said about my inauguration, ‘It will be the first one that I've missed.’ WRONG (or lie)! He boycotted Bush 43 also because he...thought it would be hypocritical to attend Bush's swearing-in....he doesn't believe Bush is the true elected president. Sound familiar!” A spokeswoman for Lewis confirmed that he had missed the inauguration of George W. Bush: "His absence at that time was also a form of dissent. He did not believe the outcome of that election, including the controversies around the results in Florida and the unprecedented intervention of the U.S. Supreme Court, reflected a free, fair and open democratic process.” In December 2019, Lewis announced that he had been diagnosed with Stage 4 pancreatic cancer. Although he was "clear-eyed about the prognosis," Lewis said he felt encouraged that medical advancements had made this type of cancer treatable in many cases, adding that he intended to return to work as soon as possible. Though the Supreme Court's decision about the Voting Rights Act was a blow to Lewis, he has been encouraged by the progress that has occurred in his lifetime. After Barack Obama won the presidency in 2008, Lewis stated that "When we were organizing voter-registration drives, going on the Freedom Rides, sitting in, coming here to Washington for the first time, getting arrested, going to jail, being beaten, I never thought—I never dreamed—of the possibility that an African American would one day be elected president of the United States." In addition to continuing his work in Congress, Lewis has reached out to a younger generation by helping to create a series of graphic novels about his work in the Civil Rights Movement. In 2016, he won the National Book Award for the third installment in the series March: Book Three, which marks the first time a graphic novel has received the honor. He accepted the award with co-writer Andrew Aydin and illustrator Nate Powell and spoke of its significance in an emotional acceptance speech. “Some of you know I grew up in rural Alabama, very poor, very few books in our home,” Lewis said. “I remember in 1956, when I was 16 years old, going to the public library to get library cards, and we were told the library was for whites only and not for coloreds. And to come here and receive this honor, it’s too much.” He also spoke about the importance of books in his life. “I had a wonderful teacher in elementary school who told me: ‘Read, my child, read’, and I tried to read everything," he said. "I love books.” The civil rights icon has also been honored with numerous awards, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the NAACP's Spingarn Medal and the sole John F. Kennedy "Profile in Courage Award" for Lifetime Achievement. We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us!	1,801	ENGLISH	1
Music early became a marked feature of the Christmas season. But the first chants, litanies, and hymns were in Latin and deemed too theological for popular use. Under the influence of Francis of Assisi in the 13th century, we began to see the rise of the carol written in the vernacular. The word carol comes from the Greek word choraulein. A choraulein was an ancient circle dance performed to flute music. In the Middle Ages, the English combined circle dances with singing and called them carols. Later, the word carol came to mean a song in which a religious topic is treated in a style that is familiar or festive. From Italy, it passed to France and Germany, and later to England, retaining its simplicity, fervor, and mirthfulness. Music in itself has become one of the greatest tributes to Christmas and includes some of the noblest compositions of great musicians. Interestingly, during the British Commonwealth government under Oliver Cromwell, the British Parliament prohibited the practice of singing Christmas carols as pagan and sinful. It was thought at the time that its pagan roots in the 13th century and its overly “democratic” 14th century influences made it an unsuitable activity for the general public. The Commonwealth government of 1647 mandated it so. Puritans at this time disapproved of the celebration of Christmas as well, and did not close shop on that day, but continued to work through December 25. This was true also in New England in America, where in Boston one could be fined five shillings for demonstrating Christmas spirit. During this brief interlude in English history, during which there was no monarch, such activity by the populace was to remain illegal. But this activity was prohibited only as long as the Commonwealth survived, and in 1660, when King Charles II restored the Stuarts to the throne, the public was once again able to practice the singing of Christmas carols. No musical work is more closely associated with the Christmas season than “Messiah” by George Frederick Handel (1685-1759). It may come as something of a surprise that it had nothing to do with the Christmas season when Handel originally composed it. It was initially performed for Lent ahead of Easter, but since Handel’s death, this music is usually performed during Advent season. Incidentally, the full title of the work is simply “Messiah” although it is widely but inaccurately referred to as “The Messiah”. The composer was German by birth but became a naturalized Englishman in 1726. He wrote “Messiah” in the summer of 1741 in his characteristically quick 24 days, and his first performance was the following spring in Dublin. “Messiah” is usually attributed to having been originally done at Christ Church Cathedral, but that is only half right. The Christ Church choir performed it, along with the choir from St. Patrick’s Cathedral which is located three blocks away (pictured at right). But the actual performance was done at Neal’s Music Hall on Fishamble Street half a block away from Christ Church on April 13, 1742 (pictured below.) For a while, Handel lived about a mile away, north and across the River Liffey. The music hall no longer exists, but the plaque below commemorates its location. The premiere was a benefit for prisoners in jail for debt as well as for a hospital and an infirmary. The concert raised about £400, enough money to free from prison 142 unfortunate debtors. It premiered in London a year later, but it was not as well received. You can read about how it was promoted by the name “A Sacred Oratorio.” Ironically, the best performance I’ve seen of Messiah was in London several years ago by the Academy of Ancient Music at the Barbican Theatre with authentic period-instruments. 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But the first chants, litanies, and hymns were in Latin and deemed too theological for popular use. Under the influence of Francis of Assisi in the 13th century, we began to see the rise of the carol written in the vernacular. The word carol comes from the Greek word choraulein. A choraulein was an ancient circle dance performed to flute music. In the Middle Ages, the English combined circle dances with singing and called them carols. Later, the word carol came to mean a song in which a religious topic is treated in a style that is familiar or festive. From Italy, it passed to France and Germany, and later to England, retaining its simplicity, fervor, and mirthfulness. Music in itself has become one of the greatest tributes to Christmas and includes some of the noblest compositions of great musicians. Interestingly, during the British Commonwealth government under Oliver Cromwell, the British Parliament prohibited the practice of singing Christmas carols as pagan and sinful. It was thought at the time that its pagan roots in the 13th century and its overly “democratic” 14th century influences made it an unsuitable activity for the general public. The Commonwealth government of 1647 mandated it so. Puritans at this time disapproved of the celebration of Christmas as well, and did not close shop on that day, but continued to work through December 25. This was true also in New England in America, where in Boston one could be fined five shillings for demonstrating Christmas spirit. During this brief interlude in English history, during which there was no monarch, such activity by the populace was to remain illegal. But this activity was prohibited only as long as the Commonwealth survived, and in 1660, when King Charles II restored the Stuarts to the throne, the public was once again able to practice the singing of Christmas carols. No musical work is more closely associated with the Christmas season than “Messiah” by George Frederick Handel (1685-1759). It may come as something of a surprise that it had nothing to do with the Christmas season when Handel originally composed it. It was initially performed for Lent ahead of Easter, but since Handel’s death, this music is usually performed during Advent season. Incidentally, the full title of the work is simply “Messiah” although it is widely but inaccurately referred to as “The Messiah”. The composer was German by birth but became a naturalized Englishman in 1726. He wrote “Messiah” in the summer of 1741 in his characteristically quick 24 days, and his first performance was the following spring in Dublin. “Messiah” is usually attributed to having been originally done at Christ Church Cathedral, but that is only half right. The Christ Church choir performed it, along with the choir from St. Patrick’s Cathedral which is located three blocks away (pictured at right). But the actual performance was done at Neal’s Music Hall on Fishamble Street half a block away from Christ Church on April 13, 1742 (pictured below.) For a while, Handel lived about a mile away, north and across the River Liffey. The music hall no longer exists, but the plaque below commemorates its location. The premiere was a benefit for prisoners in jail for debt as well as for a hospital and an infirmary. The concert raised about £400, enough money to free from prison 142 unfortunate debtors. It premiered in London a year later, but it was not as well received. You can read about how it was promoted by the name “A Sacred Oratorio.” Ironically, the best performance I’ve seen of Messiah was in London several years ago by the Academy of Ancient Music at the Barbican Theatre with authentic period-instruments. Bill Petro, your friendly neighborhood historian	824	ENGLISH	1
5. Early Life William Frederick Louis of Prussia, later to be Kaiser Wilhelm I of Germany, was born on March 22nd, 1797, in Kronprinzenpalais (German for Crown Prince's Palace) in Berlin. He was the second son of Prince Frederick William III and the noble Princess Louisa of Mechlenburg-Sterlitz. He grew up under the tyranny of Napoleon I. From an early age he received private education and, as the second son of the King, he was not expected to take over the throne. Instead, according to Royal traditions, he was initially destined to become a military man. He was appointed an officer in the Prussian Army when he was only 12, and later on in his adolescence was commissioned as a Captain, and joined the Allied monarchs' fight against France when he was 16. During this period of time he participated in the war against Napoleon I. 4. Rise to Power In the following years, Wilhelm I was devoted to his military service, and was determined to perfect the functionality of the Prussian Army. He helped quenched several uprisings, and hence consolidated the power of his brother, King Frederick Wilhelm IV. He also helped to set up the Vereinigter Landtag (the Prussian Parliament), and took a seat for himself in the Herrenhaus (its upper chamber). After King Frederick Wilhelm IV suffered a stroke and became mentally disabled, in 1857 Wilhelm I became the Royal Regent for his brother. Then, after King Frederick Wilhelm IV died childless, Wilhelm I became the King of Prussia in 1861. In the following years, he waged campaigns against Denmark, Austria, and, ultimately, France. In 1871, during the Franco-Prussian War, Wilhelm was proclaimed Emperor (Kaiser) of a now united German state. By proclaiming himself the German Emperor, King Wilhelm I transformed the former, loosely joined North German Confederation into the German Empire, which in fact was a unified Germany that soon established itself as a modern state. His most important contribution was arguably his appointment of Otto von Bismarck, the well-known "blood and iron chancellor", as the Minister President. With the help of Bismarck, King Wilhelm rapidly modernized Germany, making it into one of the most dominant military and economic powers in Europe. Wilhelm centralized power, built a strong military, and improved Germany's international status. It was also under his reign that Germany became one of the first modern welfare states. When Wilhelm became the King of Prussia, he faced an atmosphere of strong tension, caused by disagreements between German conservatives and liberals, the latter being influenced by Enlightenment ideals. Although he himself did not agree with the liberals, Wilhelm sought a balance between them and the conservatives, and avoided significant conflict within his government. Growing up under the tyranny of Napoleon I, Wilhelm also recognized the importance of the military to a country's wellbeing. Although his proposal to increase military expenditures and the length of military service faced serious challenges in the German Parliament, with the support of Bismarck he was able to pass his proposals. These controversial changes transformed Germany into a military state, and directly contributed to the First World War. 1. Death and Legacy King Wilhelm I died on March 9th, 1888 in Berlin. He was buried at the Park Charlottenburg Mausoleum. He was a very popular emperor during his time, and many statues and memorials have since been built to honor him. He personified the transition from the Kingdom of Prussia and the North German Confederation into the German Empire, and as such became an important symbol of modern German identity. He was careful not to abuses his powers as the Emperor, and supported his chancellor, Bismarck, in efforts to transform Germany into a modern state, and a hegemonic power in Europe. At the same time, however, such intense militarization and ambitious conquest also to some extent gave rise to the military conflicts that characterized the first half of the 20th Century. Who Was Kaiser Wilhelm I? William Frederick Louis of Prussia, later to be Kaiser Wilhelm I of Germany, was born on March 22nd, 1797, in Kronprinzenpalais (German for Crown Prince's Palace) in Berlin. He is known for having been the Empire of Germany. 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Early Life William Frederick Louis of Prussia, later to be Kaiser Wilhelm I of Germany, was born on March 22nd, 1797, in Kronprinzenpalais (German for Crown Prince's Palace) in Berlin. He was the second son of Prince Frederick William III and the noble Princess Louisa of Mechlenburg-Sterlitz. He grew up under the tyranny of Napoleon I. From an early age he received private education and, as the second son of the King, he was not expected to take over the throne. Instead, according to Royal traditions, he was initially destined to become a military man. He was appointed an officer in the Prussian Army when he was only 12, and later on in his adolescence was commissioned as a Captain, and joined the Allied monarchs' fight against France when he was 16. During this period of time he participated in the war against Napoleon I. 4. Rise to Power In the following years, Wilhelm I was devoted to his military service, and was determined to perfect the functionality of the Prussian Army. He helped quenched several uprisings, and hence consolidated the power of his brother, King Frederick Wilhelm IV. He also helped to set up the Vereinigter Landtag (the Prussian Parliament), and took a seat for himself in the Herrenhaus (its upper chamber). After King Frederick Wilhelm IV suffered a stroke and became mentally disabled, in 1857 Wilhelm I became the Royal Regent for his brother. Then, after King Frederick Wilhelm IV died childless, Wilhelm I became the King of Prussia in 1861. In the following years, he waged campaigns against Denmark, Austria, and, ultimately, France. In 1871, during the Franco-Prussian War, Wilhelm was proclaimed Emperor (Kaiser) of a now united German state. By proclaiming himself the German Emperor, King Wilhelm I transformed the former, loosely joined North German Confederation into the German Empire, which in fact was a unified Germany that soon established itself as a modern state. His most important contribution was arguably his appointment of Otto von Bismarck, the well-known "blood and iron chancellor", as the Minister President. With the help of Bismarck, King Wilhelm rapidly modernized Germany, making it into one of the most dominant military and economic powers in Europe. Wilhelm centralized power, built a strong military, and improved Germany's international status. It was also under his reign that Germany became one of the first modern welfare states. When Wilhelm became the King of Prussia, he faced an atmosphere of strong tension, caused by disagreements between German conservatives and liberals, the latter being influenced by Enlightenment ideals. Although he himself did not agree with the liberals, Wilhelm sought a balance between them and the conservatives, and avoided significant conflict within his government. Growing up under the tyranny of Napoleon I, Wilhelm also recognized the importance of the military to a country's wellbeing. Although his proposal to increase military expenditures and the length of military service faced serious challenges in the German Parliament, with the support of Bismarck he was able to pass his proposals. These controversial changes transformed Germany into a military state, and directly contributed to the First World War. 1. Death and Legacy King Wilhelm I died on March 9th, 1888 in Berlin. He was buried at the Park Charlottenburg Mausoleum. He was a very popular emperor during his time, and many statues and memorials have since been built to honor him. He personified the transition from the Kingdom of Prussia and the North German Confederation into the German Empire, and as such became an important symbol of modern German identity. He was careful not to abuses his powers as the Emperor, and supported his chancellor, Bismarck, in efforts to transform Germany into a modern state, and a hegemonic power in Europe. At the same time, however, such intense militarization and ambitious conquest also to some extent gave rise to the military conflicts that characterized the first half of the 20th Century. Who Was Kaiser Wilhelm I? William Frederick Louis of Prussia, later to be Kaiser Wilhelm I of Germany, was born on March 22nd, 1797, in Kronprinzenpalais (German for Crown Prince's Palace) in Berlin. He is known for having been the Empire of Germany. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	937	ENGLISH	1
Lee adopted a defensive position at Cold Harbor. Recent reinforcements from other Confederate positions had increased the size of his army to almost sixty thousand men, but Lee knew that Grant's approaching force was much larger. The rebel army's only hope was to build defensive fortifications that could withstand a full assault from the Yankees. Armed with reinforcements that increased the size of his army to almost 110,000 troops, Grant tried to use brute force to pry the Confederates out of their positions at Cold Harbor. On the evening of June 2, he ordered his troops to prepare for a full frontal assault on the rebel defenses the following morning. A ripple of fear and apprehension ran through the Federal camp when the soldiers learned of this plan, for they knew that many of them would be killed or wounded in the attack. In the hours leading up to the assault, hundreds of Union soldiers pinned pieces of cloth and paper with their names and addresses to their uniforms so their bodies could be identified after the battle. Grant launched his assault on Cold Harbor on the morning of June 3. The decision was possibly the worst of his entire military career. The Confederate Army shattered the advance in a hail of gunfire, and the Union Army never came close to breaching the rebel defenses. By the early afternoon Grant had lost more than seven thousand men. The Confederates, on the other hand, lost fewer than fifteen hundred in the clash. Years later, Grant admitted that his order to attack had been a terrible decision. "I have always regretted that the last assault at Cold Harbor was ever made," he wrote. "At Cold Harbor no advantage whatever was gained to compensate for the heavy loss we sustained." 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Recent reinforcements from other Confederate positions had increased the size of his army to almost sixty thousand men, but Lee knew that Grant's approaching force was much larger. The rebel army's only hope was to build defensive fortifications that could withstand a full assault from the Yankees. Armed with reinforcements that increased the size of his army to almost 110,000 troops, Grant tried to use brute force to pry the Confederates out of their positions at Cold Harbor. On the evening of June 2, he ordered his troops to prepare for a full frontal assault on the rebel defenses the following morning. A ripple of fear and apprehension ran through the Federal camp when the soldiers learned of this plan, for they knew that many of them would be killed or wounded in the attack. In the hours leading up to the assault, hundreds of Union soldiers pinned pieces of cloth and paper with their names and addresses to their uniforms so their bodies could be identified after the battle. Grant launched his assault on Cold Harbor on the morning of June 3. The decision was possibly the worst of his entire military career. The Confederate Army shattered the advance in a hail of gunfire, and the Union Army never came close to breaching the rebel defenses. By the early afternoon Grant had lost more than seven thousand men. The Confederates, on the other hand, lost fewer than fifteen hundred in the clash. Years later, Grant admitted that his order to attack had been a terrible decision. "I have always regretted that the last assault at Cold Harbor was ever made," he wrote. "At Cold Harbor no advantage whatever was gained to compensate for the heavy loss we sustained." Was this article helpful?	348	ENGLISH	1
The trans-Atlantic flight that made Amelia Earhart a celebrity worldwide in 1928 started off at East Boston Airport – now known to travelers as Logan International Airport. She was born on July 24, 1897, in in Atchison, Kans. Her maternal grandfather was a well-to-do banker and judge, but her father was an alcoholic country lawyer. During her childhood the family moved frequently, and it took a while for Amelia to find herself. She tried junior college and worked as a nurse’s assistant in World War I, thought about entering Smith College, enrolled at Columbia, then quit to spend time with her parents in California. In Long Beach, she took her first ride in an airplane. It lasted 10 minutes. That was enough for her. “I knew I had to fly,” she wrote. On May 15, 1923, Amelia Earhart became the 16th woman issued an international pilot’s license. She tried more jobs, then drove cross-country with her mother to Boston. She tried college again, then became a teacher, then in 1925 she got a job as a social worker at Denison House in Boston. It was the second oldest settlement house in the nation. Social work then offered a new career option for ambitious, motivated and educated women like Amelia Earhart. She taught English to Syrian, Chinese and some Italian children. They were as interesting as any people she had known, she later wrote. She lived in Medford, Mass., but she rarely stayed home. Earhart somehow found time to fly and to promote flying. She acted as a sales representative for Kinner Aircraft, wrote columns about aviation and laid plans for an organization for women fliers that would become the Ninety Nines. Then on June 17, 1928 she took off in a trimotor seaplane called the Friendship with Wilmer Stutz and Louis Gordon. They left from East Boston Airport to Newfoundland, landed in Wales 20 hours and 40 minutes later and then flew on to Southampton, England. No matter that all she did was to keep the flight log. As the first woman to fly across the Atlantic, she was a celebrity. She and the other Friendship Flyers were feted in her hometown of Medford in July 1928. In the photo above, Medford Mayor Edward Larkin escorted her. She was soon back in the air. Above, photographer Leslie Jones snapped her first takeoff after her famed trans-Atlantic flight. Amelia Earhart went on to set more aviation records. She flew solo across the Atlantic, wrote a best-selling book and earned the Distinguished Flying Cross. Amelia Earhart disappeared over the Central Pacific Ocean on July 2, 1937. If you enjoyed this story, you may also want to read about Amelia Earhart’s wedding in Connecticut here. 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She was born on July 24, 1897, in in Atchison, Kans. Her maternal grandfather was a well-to-do banker and judge, but her father was an alcoholic country lawyer. During her childhood the family moved frequently, and it took a while for Amelia to find herself. She tried junior college and worked as a nurse’s assistant in World War I, thought about entering Smith College, enrolled at Columbia, then quit to spend time with her parents in California. In Long Beach, she took her first ride in an airplane. It lasted 10 minutes. That was enough for her. “I knew I had to fly,” she wrote. On May 15, 1923, Amelia Earhart became the 16th woman issued an international pilot’s license. She tried more jobs, then drove cross-country with her mother to Boston. She tried college again, then became a teacher, then in 1925 she got a job as a social worker at Denison House in Boston. It was the second oldest settlement house in the nation. Social work then offered a new career option for ambitious, motivated and educated women like Amelia Earhart. She taught English to Syrian, Chinese and some Italian children. They were as interesting as any people she had known, she later wrote. She lived in Medford, Mass., but she rarely stayed home. Earhart somehow found time to fly and to promote flying. She acted as a sales representative for Kinner Aircraft, wrote columns about aviation and laid plans for an organization for women fliers that would become the Ninety Nines. Then on June 17, 1928 she took off in a trimotor seaplane called the Friendship with Wilmer Stutz and Louis Gordon. They left from East Boston Airport to Newfoundland, landed in Wales 20 hours and 40 minutes later and then flew on to Southampton, England. No matter that all she did was to keep the flight log. As the first woman to fly across the Atlantic, she was a celebrity. She and the other Friendship Flyers were feted in her hometown of Medford in July 1928. In the photo above, Medford Mayor Edward Larkin escorted her. She was soon back in the air. Above, photographer Leslie Jones snapped her first takeoff after her famed trans-Atlantic flight. Amelia Earhart went on to set more aviation records. She flew solo across the Atlantic, wrote a best-selling book and earned the Distinguished Flying Cross. Amelia Earhart disappeared over the Central Pacific Ocean on July 2, 1937. If you enjoyed this story, you may also want to read about Amelia Earhart’s wedding in Connecticut here. This story was updated in 2019.	609	ENGLISH	1
Black History Month is a time to learn about and celebrate all of the African-American men who have made contributions to society. America is lucky to have had so many people contribute to its greatness as these black men have. Start your Black History Month education off right by reading about six black men who have made their mark on history: 1. Clarence Thomas (b. 1948) is an associate justice of the United States Supreme Court. After attending serminary in the late ’60s, Thomas received his juris doctorate in 1974 from Yale Law School. His early legal career took him to the office of Missouri’s attorney general, the U.S. Department of Education, the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission and private practice. He first stepped into judicial robes in 1990 as a Judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia. After only a year in that position, President Bush nominated him to his current position. As a Supreme Court associate justice, Thomas has voted in ways to minimize government’s interference in the lives of its citizenry. During his first 10 years on the bench, Thomas noted in opinions that a defendant’s background is irrelevant to his crime and that not everyone of a certain races has the same politics. His decisions have helped break down barriers and preconceived notions of other judges, bringing light to the fact that all people are different and yet should be treated the same. 2. Frederick Douglass (b. 1817, d. 1895) was a slave who escaped that oppressive life to become an abolitionist speaker and the first black man to hold a high rank in the U.S. government. Douglass fled a Maryland plantation for the North in 1838. He got married, changed his name and moved to New Bedford, Mass., where he became outspoken in his abolitionist views. As he became more popular as a speaker, Douglass’s speeches began appearing in print. He used the money he was paid for his lectures to head the Rochester station of the Underground Railroad and to help fugitive slaves start their new lives. In 1847, Douglass published the North Star, a four-page paper produced in Rochester that had an anti-slavery and pro-women’s right bent. The paper was printed weekly until 1863. 3. Benjamin Banneker (b. 1731, d. 1806) was the first black scientist. For most of his life, Banneker was a tobacco farmer in Maryland with a love of learning. Although his formal education was short, he enjoyed reading and taught himself astronomy at age 58. Banneker soon was able to determine future solar and lunar eclipses, which he wrote about for five years in an annual “Benjamin Banneker’s Almanac.” Banneker had a key eye for how machines worked. He once drew the inside of a watch and recreated it from wood. The clock kept accurate time for more than 40 years. Near the end of his life, he was one of the first people to survey the “Federal District,” now called Washington, D.C. He also began to write Thomas Jefferson to urge him to end slavery. 4. George Washington Carver (b. 1860, d. 1943) was a famous agricultural scientist whose work led to the discovery of more than 300 products that could be made from peanuts. After a tumultuous childhood that involved being kidnapped for ransom, Carver graduted from high school and was the first black man to enroll at Simpson College in Iowa. He later received a master’s of science in agricultural science in 1896, which he put to good use teaching Southern farmers how to rotate crops so that their soil would remain nutrient-rich and usable for generations to come. However, the farmers he was trying to who he was marketing his ideas did not think the other crops he suggested were as profitable as cotton. Carver eventually convinced them that sweet potatoes, peas and peanuts were versatile products that could be widely used. In 1923, the scientist won the Springarm Award. The coveted honor is bestowed upon worthy black people by the National Association for Colored People. 5. Louis “Satchmo” Armstrong (b. 1900, d. 1971) was a great American jazz musician. The New Orleans-born Armstrong first learned to play cornet at a reform school. As a teenager, he spent time in clubs listening to jazz musicians. One of them gave him a cornet, which he treasured and played as often as possible. For two years, he played it in bars in the Storyville neighborhood. Two years later, he spread his wings and joined a St. Louis band. He jumped around various bands for years, even playing for his wife’s band for a time. In 1925, Armstrong made the first recording of his music under his own name, and he started gaining popularity and his own orchestra. He recorded his first international hit, his version of “Hello Dolly,” in 1963, and followed it with the widely adored “What a Wonderful World” five years later. Over the years, Armstrong faced racism as his popularity rose, but he handled it with grace and kept his stellar career moving in the right direction. 6. Bill Cosby (b. 1937) is a gifted entertainer who was the first black man to star in a major television show. However, the start of his life wasn’t so funny. Cosby was born in Philadelphia to a poor couple in the projects. He showed great promise academically, but was distracted by sports. After four years in the Navy, he got a GED and enrolled at Temple University. During his sophomore year, Cosby started telling jokes at a coffeehouse called the Cellar. The low-paying job got him bigger opportunities until he finally got an agent in 1962. Not long after, he started recording comedy albums and doing comedy tours in Las Vegas, San Francisco and Chicago. Cosby’s career in TV started in 1962 as an undercover CIA agent on “I Spy.” Four years later, he had his own show — “The Bill Cosby Show.” However, the show floundered, and his career hit a rough patch. After two decades of hard times on TV, he finally hit the airwaves again in his famous “The Cosby Show.” The show ran from 1984 to 1992, and was considered a major hit that portrayed African Americans in a completely different light. Cosby still is active as a comedian and as an outspoken critic of negative portrayals of black people on television shows. He was honored again in 2002 as a receipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Staff, Supreme Court Associate Justice Clarence Thomas. African Americans. Staff, Clarence Thomas. Supreme Court History. Staff, Frederick Douglass Index. African Americans. Staff, Frederick Douglass. PBS. Staff, Benjamin Banneker. African Americans. Staff, Benjamin Banneker’s life. Progress. Staff, George Washington Carver. African Americans. Staff, About George Washington Carver. Iowa State University Library. Staff, Louis ‘Satchmo’ Armstrong. African Americans. Staff, Presidential Medal of Freedom Receipient Bill Cosby. Medal of Freedom.	<urn:uuid:d8756b03-8758-4e2e-8f3b-80d56be3dbac>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://yuptab.com/six-famous-black-men-to-celebrate-during-black-history-month/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00075.warc.gz	en	0.985209	1,510	3.796875	4	[ -0.4199809730052948, 0.7427574992179871, -0.032017845660448074, -0.024543972685933113, -0.39979636669158936, -0.13776926696300507, 0.34495073556900024, -0.23786401748657227, -0.3411015272140503, -0.0036895638331770897, 0.07740488648414612, 0.11979144811630249, -0.2942853569984436, 0.22728261351585388, -0.41824960708618164, 0.4077267050743103, -0.2760389745235443, 0.7217621207237244, -0.6578248739242554, -0.053249090909957886, 0.07031264901161194, -0.5083258152008057, -0.1390075385570526, -0.0349431075155735, 0.09934904426336288, 0.1364196240901947, -0.03993117809295654, -0.014004339464008808, -0.4630870223045349, -1.3361656665802002, 0.24077481031417847, 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America is lucky to have had so many people contribute to its greatness as these black men have. Start your Black History Month education off right by reading about six black men who have made their mark on history: 1. Clarence Thomas (b. 1948) is an associate justice of the United States Supreme Court. After attending serminary in the late ’60s, Thomas received his juris doctorate in 1974 from Yale Law School. His early legal career took him to the office of Missouri’s attorney general, the U.S. Department of Education, the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission and private practice. He first stepped into judicial robes in 1990 as a Judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia. After only a year in that position, President Bush nominated him to his current position. As a Supreme Court associate justice, Thomas has voted in ways to minimize government’s interference in the lives of its citizenry. During his first 10 years on the bench, Thomas noted in opinions that a defendant’s background is irrelevant to his crime and that not everyone of a certain races has the same politics. His decisions have helped break down barriers and preconceived notions of other judges, bringing light to the fact that all people are different and yet should be treated the same. 2. Frederick Douglass (b. 1817, d. 1895) was a slave who escaped that oppressive life to become an abolitionist speaker and the first black man to hold a high rank in the U.S. government. Douglass fled a Maryland plantation for the North in 1838. He got married, changed his name and moved to New Bedford, Mass., where he became outspoken in his abolitionist views. As he became more popular as a speaker, Douglass’s speeches began appearing in print. He used the money he was paid for his lectures to head the Rochester station of the Underground Railroad and to help fugitive slaves start their new lives. In 1847, Douglass published the North Star, a four-page paper produced in Rochester that had an anti-slavery and pro-women’s right bent. The paper was printed weekly until 1863. 3. Benjamin Banneker (b. 1731, d. 1806) was the first black scientist. For most of his life, Banneker was a tobacco farmer in Maryland with a love of learning. Although his formal education was short, he enjoyed reading and taught himself astronomy at age 58. Banneker soon was able to determine future solar and lunar eclipses, which he wrote about for five years in an annual “Benjamin Banneker’s Almanac.” Banneker had a key eye for how machines worked. He once drew the inside of a watch and recreated it from wood. The clock kept accurate time for more than 40 years. Near the end of his life, he was one of the first people to survey the “Federal District,” now called Washington, D.C. He also began to write Thomas Jefferson to urge him to end slavery. 4. George Washington Carver (b. 1860, d. 1943) was a famous agricultural scientist whose work led to the discovery of more than 300 products that could be made from peanuts. After a tumultuous childhood that involved being kidnapped for ransom, Carver graduted from high school and was the first black man to enroll at Simpson College in Iowa. He later received a master’s of science in agricultural science in 1896, which he put to good use teaching Southern farmers how to rotate crops so that their soil would remain nutrient-rich and usable for generations to come. However, the farmers he was trying to who he was marketing his ideas did not think the other crops he suggested were as profitable as cotton. Carver eventually convinced them that sweet potatoes, peas and peanuts were versatile products that could be widely used. In 1923, the scientist won the Springarm Award. The coveted honor is bestowed upon worthy black people by the National Association for Colored People. 5. Louis “Satchmo” Armstrong (b. 1900, d. 1971) was a great American jazz musician. The New Orleans-born Armstrong first learned to play cornet at a reform school. As a teenager, he spent time in clubs listening to jazz musicians. One of them gave him a cornet, which he treasured and played as often as possible. For two years, he played it in bars in the Storyville neighborhood. Two years later, he spread his wings and joined a St. Louis band. He jumped around various bands for years, even playing for his wife’s band for a time. In 1925, Armstrong made the first recording of his music under his own name, and he started gaining popularity and his own orchestra. He recorded his first international hit, his version of “Hello Dolly,” in 1963, and followed it with the widely adored “What a Wonderful World” five years later. Over the years, Armstrong faced racism as his popularity rose, but he handled it with grace and kept his stellar career moving in the right direction. 6. Bill Cosby (b. 1937) is a gifted entertainer who was the first black man to star in a major television show. However, the start of his life wasn’t so funny. Cosby was born in Philadelphia to a poor couple in the projects. He showed great promise academically, but was distracted by sports. After four years in the Navy, he got a GED and enrolled at Temple University. During his sophomore year, Cosby started telling jokes at a coffeehouse called the Cellar. The low-paying job got him bigger opportunities until he finally got an agent in 1962. Not long after, he started recording comedy albums and doing comedy tours in Las Vegas, San Francisco and Chicago. Cosby’s career in TV started in 1962 as an undercover CIA agent on “I Spy.” Four years later, he had his own show — “The Bill Cosby Show.” However, the show floundered, and his career hit a rough patch. After two decades of hard times on TV, he finally hit the airwaves again in his famous “The Cosby Show.” The show ran from 1984 to 1992, and was considered a major hit that portrayed African Americans in a completely different light. Cosby still is active as a comedian and as an outspoken critic of negative portrayals of black people on television shows. He was honored again in 2002 as a receipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Staff, Supreme Court Associate Justice Clarence Thomas. African Americans. Staff, Clarence Thomas. Supreme Court History. Staff, Frederick Douglass Index. African Americans. Staff, Frederick Douglass. PBS. Staff, Benjamin Banneker. African Americans. Staff, Benjamin Banneker’s life. Progress. Staff, George Washington Carver. African Americans. Staff, About George Washington Carver. Iowa State University Library. Staff, Louis ‘Satchmo’ Armstrong. African Americans. Staff, Presidential Medal of Freedom Receipient Bill Cosby. Medal of Freedom.	1,531	ENGLISH	1
This is one of the five korea royal palace last dynasty, the Joseon Dynasty, which lasted for over 500 years from 1392 until 1910. The dynasty had two critical moments: one the end of the 16th century, and the other at the end of the 19th century. Both of them were related to this palace and to Japanese invasion coincidentally. In 1592, the Japanese army landed in Busan and marched to the capital, Seoul. Prior to their arrival, King Seonjo fled to Uiju, where he stayed for one and a half years. When he returned to Seoul, he had no place to stay because all of the palaces had been burned down during the war. So, he used this place, which was originally the residence of one of his relative’s families, as a temporary palace. Prince Gwanghaegun succeeded King Seonjo and then renamed this place “Hyeongungung Palace”. After he was overthrown by King Injo, it was not used for about 270 years. The palace re-entered the annals of history in the late 19th century. After King Gojong returned from the refuge with Russian legation, he chose to reside in this palace. He renamed this palace “Gyeongungung Palace” and expanded it. He also proclamed to the world the establishment of the Daehan Empire and raised his own status from king to that of an emperor. He remained at the palace even after he had been forced to hand over the throne to his son, Emperor Sunjong. The name of the palace was changed at this time to Deoksugung Palace, meaning the “Palace of virtuous longevity.” In 1910, the official Japanese colonization of the Daehan Empire was completed. In 1919, Gojong passed away. His sudden death was one of the causes of the March 1st Independence movement. (korea royal palace) Under the colonial rule of Japan, the palace was converted into a public park by Japan. 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-0.04655410721898079, 0.35457924008369446, -0.4757465422153473, -0.36952051520347595, 0.1486937403678894, -0.20720817148685455, 1.1201854944229126, 0.17709559202194214, -0.14428798854351044, -0.4302978217601776, 0.38295087218284607, -0.02719801850616932, -0.0569574236869812, 0.08416590094566345, -0.05550151690840721, 0.09775033593177795, 0.031062504276633263, 0.23148059844970703, 0.07122504711151123, -0.1769476979970932, 0.3252829313278198, -0.10052743554115295, 0.060494713485240936, -0.13448692858219147, 0.21464525163173676, -0.1280898004770279, -0.01675327867269516 ]	1	This is one of the five korea royal palace last dynasty, the Joseon Dynasty, which lasted for over 500 years from 1392 until 1910. The dynasty had two critical moments: one the end of the 16th century, and the other at the end of the 19th century. Both of them were related to this palace and to Japanese invasion coincidentally. In 1592, the Japanese army landed in Busan and marched to the capital, Seoul. Prior to their arrival, King Seonjo fled to Uiju, where he stayed for one and a half years. When he returned to Seoul, he had no place to stay because all of the palaces had been burned down during the war. So, he used this place, which was originally the residence of one of his relative’s families, as a temporary palace. Prince Gwanghaegun succeeded King Seonjo and then renamed this place “Hyeongungung Palace”. After he was overthrown by King Injo, it was not used for about 270 years. The palace re-entered the annals of history in the late 19th century. After King Gojong returned from the refuge with Russian legation, he chose to reside in this palace. He renamed this palace “Gyeongungung Palace” and expanded it. He also proclamed to the world the establishment of the Daehan Empire and raised his own status from king to that of an emperor. He remained at the palace even after he had been forced to hand over the throne to his son, Emperor Sunjong. The name of the palace was changed at this time to Deoksugung Palace, meaning the “Palace of virtuous longevity.” In 1910, the official Japanese colonization of the Daehan Empire was completed. In 1919, Gojong passed away. His sudden death was one of the causes of the March 1st Independence movement. (korea royal palace) Under the colonial rule of Japan, the palace was converted into a public park by Japan. The scale of Deoksugung Palace was decreased to one-third its original size, and the number of buildings reduced to just one-tenth.	468	ENGLISH	1
Antonio Canova (1757-1822) Perseus with the Head of Medusa (1804-6) As I was going through the Metropolitan Museum of Art this past week, I caught sight of a woman in hijab who was walking towards me. She caught my attention because you don’t see that many women with covered heads in the section of sculptures—they mainly concentrate on jewelry, furniture and ancient weaponry—but she was to walk towards Antonio Canova’s 19th Century marble sculpture of Perseus with the Head of Medusa and I wanted to catch her reaction to his phallus, and see what she would do? Would she pause and look, or avert her eyes? So I turned around as she passed me and saw that she did not even lift her head up and just walked by. More importantly in her urgency to look away she did not even notice the decapitated head of Medusa Perseus was holding in his left hand. Which got me thinking of Medusa. A symbol of oh, so much, and the subject of so many: from Freud’s female penis envy to castration and decapitation. Many feminist theorists discuss Medusa in their writings too. Well, Medusa was a beautiful Greek mortal—the only mortal one of the Gorgon sisters—and aware of her beauty. One day Medusa was raped by Poseidon in the temple of Athena, and therefore Athena punished her. Medusa was to have a head covered of snakes, instead of hair, and that any man who would look at her directly would be turned into stone. Eventually, Perseus, son of Zeus and Danaë would go to decapitate her, a scene captured in many artworks. But what is this about hair, or head? It must be perceived that it has certain powers. If we move from the Greeks to closer in time to the Old Testament, we see that Delilah cuts off Samson’s hair rendering him powerless. (Oh these bad women will always try to take away everything from you!) And then in the New Testament, in Corinthians that we keep hearing of so much lately, it says “if a woman does not cover her head, let her also have her hair cut off; but if it is disgraceful for a woman to have her hair cut off or her head shaved, let her cover her head.” Again just like the woman I saw at the Met, observant Muslim women cover their heads as do observant Jewish women who are married. But, why exactly? I am reminded of the story told by a teenage babysitter I had for my toddler son in a summer we spent in Istanbul. This girl whose family had emigrated from the Black Sea area of Turkey to Istanbul once mentioned to me how when she was younger, whenever she and her sister acted unruly—for quite ridiculously benign things in my opinion—their father would sit them down and cut their hair! They would be protesting, and crying the whole time, but despite their objections—he wouldn’t beat them or anything—he would just cut their hair off. Super offensive and humiliating don’t you think? But it this intention exactly behind this command of having to cover, or cut hair, or replace them with snakes: To offend and to exert power over. All those millions of women sent to the showers in Nazi death camps had their heads shaved. I read in a New York Times Book Review that during the dictatorship of Franco in Spain “tens of thousands of women had their heads shaved and were force-fed castor oil (a powerful laxative), then jeered as they were paraded through the streets soiling themselves.” Shave their heads, cover their heads, and make them become uniform. Remove their individuality, render them one, and the same. Decapitate their unique minds and personalities. Remove their laughter among sisters, and separate them even further from one another, and make sure they cry no matter what. Medusa was beautiful, and knew she was beautiful, was punished by Athena, a Goddess, removed of her hair to be replaced with snakes, yet punished for the rape of herself and from then on, any man who would look at her would turn to stone. She was feared and Perseus was asked to kill her. She was so powerful. Even turning her hair into snakes didn’t quite cut it, so she had to have her head completely cut off, to prevent her from exerting her power. Never the rapist or the looker should ever be punished. I wish to all my sisters from everywhere more power, more courage, more voice and less feeling of guilt. Let the sun shine in: on your body and head. May you always have power, big, loud laughs and may we come to a day when we do not even have to defend them.	<urn:uuid:1c29cb0d-ab12-473b-833f-aee6e0e4be28>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.artfaimusgal.com/single-post/2016/03/08/Let-the-Sun-Shine-In	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00384.warc.gz	en	0.987139	1,000	3.296875	3	[ -0.3524394631385803, 0.12643131613731384, 0.21895469725131989, 0.010474609211087227, -0.2876831293106079, -0.2873689532279968, 0.6621997952461243, 0.3657226264476776, -0.2589043378829956, 0.03792811930179596, 0.07633461803197861, -0.46049004793167114, -0.143083855509758, 0.13431942462921143, 0.2762952446937561, -0.10749630630016327, -0.23045068979263306, 0.4014910161495209, -0.7408435344696045, 0.1549992859363556, 0.3351265788078308, -0.14359359443187714, 0.08268512785434723, -0.23669293522834778, 0.029762862250208855, -0.1261925846338272, -0.09310364723205566, -0.156649649143219, 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She caught my attention because you don’t see that many women with covered heads in the section of sculptures—they mainly concentrate on jewelry, furniture and ancient weaponry—but she was to walk towards Antonio Canova’s 19th Century marble sculpture of Perseus with the Head of Medusa and I wanted to catch her reaction to his phallus, and see what she would do? Would she pause and look, or avert her eyes? So I turned around as she passed me and saw that she did not even lift her head up and just walked by. More importantly in her urgency to look away she did not even notice the decapitated head of Medusa Perseus was holding in his left hand. Which got me thinking of Medusa. A symbol of oh, so much, and the subject of so many: from Freud’s female penis envy to castration and decapitation. Many feminist theorists discuss Medusa in their writings too. Well, Medusa was a beautiful Greek mortal—the only mortal one of the Gorgon sisters—and aware of her beauty. One day Medusa was raped by Poseidon in the temple of Athena, and therefore Athena punished her. Medusa was to have a head covered of snakes, instead of hair, and that any man who would look at her directly would be turned into stone. Eventually, Perseus, son of Zeus and Danaë would go to decapitate her, a scene captured in many artworks. But what is this about hair, or head? It must be perceived that it has certain powers. If we move from the Greeks to closer in time to the Old Testament, we see that Delilah cuts off Samson’s hair rendering him powerless. (Oh these bad women will always try to take away everything from you!) And then in the New Testament, in Corinthians that we keep hearing of so much lately, it says “if a woman does not cover her head, let her also have her hair cut off; but if it is disgraceful for a woman to have her hair cut off or her head shaved, let her cover her head.” Again just like the woman I saw at the Met, observant Muslim women cover their heads as do observant Jewish women who are married. But, why exactly? I am reminded of the story told by a teenage babysitter I had for my toddler son in a summer we spent in Istanbul. This girl whose family had emigrated from the Black Sea area of Turkey to Istanbul once mentioned to me how when she was younger, whenever she and her sister acted unruly—for quite ridiculously benign things in my opinion—their father would sit them down and cut their hair! They would be protesting, and crying the whole time, but despite their objections—he wouldn’t beat them or anything—he would just cut their hair off. Super offensive and humiliating don’t you think? But it this intention exactly behind this command of having to cover, or cut hair, or replace them with snakes: To offend and to exert power over. All those millions of women sent to the showers in Nazi death camps had their heads shaved. I read in a New York Times Book Review that during the dictatorship of Franco in Spain “tens of thousands of women had their heads shaved and were force-fed castor oil (a powerful laxative), then jeered as they were paraded through the streets soiling themselves.” Shave their heads, cover their heads, and make them become uniform. Remove their individuality, render them one, and the same. Decapitate their unique minds and personalities. Remove their laughter among sisters, and separate them even further from one another, and make sure they cry no matter what. Medusa was beautiful, and knew she was beautiful, was punished by Athena, a Goddess, removed of her hair to be replaced with snakes, yet punished for the rape of herself and from then on, any man who would look at her would turn to stone. She was feared and Perseus was asked to kill her. She was so powerful. Even turning her hair into snakes didn’t quite cut it, so she had to have her head completely cut off, to prevent her from exerting her power. Never the rapist or the looker should ever be punished. I wish to all my sisters from everywhere more power, more courage, more voice and less feeling of guilt. Let the sun shine in: on your body and head. May you always have power, big, loud laughs and may we come to a day when we do not even have to defend them.	983	ENGLISH	1
January 28, 1963 On this day in 1963, civil rights attorneys sued the Macon County Board of Education. The case was brought on behalf of 14 African-American students who were being prevented from enrolling in the all-white Tuskegee High School. The case was significant, because it became the consolidated legal decision that affected the entire state. Before Lee v. Macon County Board of Education, efforts to desegregate Alabama public schools were stalled because proponents were required to file suit individually in each district. It took 50 months for Lee to come down in favor of the plaintiffs, and that case became the template for the rest of the state. Read more at Encyclopedia of Alabama. 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The case was brought on behalf of 14 African-American students who were being prevented from enrolling in the all-white Tuskegee High School. The case was significant, because it became the consolidated legal decision that affected the entire state. Before Lee v. Macon County Board of Education, efforts to desegregate Alabama public schools were stalled because proponents were required to file suit individually in each district. It took 50 months for Lee to come down in favor of the plaintiffs, and that case became the template for the rest of the state. Read more at Encyclopedia of Alabama. For more on Alabama’s Bicentennial, visit Alabama 200.	169	ENGLISH	1
César Chávez Day César Chavez day is an American federal commemorative holiday observed every year on March 31. It celebrates the birthday and work of civil rights and labor movement leader César Chávez. It is a state holiday in 10 states, such as California, Arizona and Colorado, where schools and state offices are closed, and people get the day off work. Check locally to see if this applies to you. History of César Chávez Day The birthday of César Chávez has been commemorated in the state of Nevada since 2003, and in 2009 a state law was passed proclaiming that the state’s governor has to make an annual declaration marking March 31 as César Chávez day. In 2008, then Senator Barack Obama presented the idea of declaring March 31 a federal holiday in honor of the civil rights activist. This was picked up and supported by several Grassroot Organizations. It was not until March 28, 2014, that now President Barack Obama officially proclaimed March 31st as César Chávez Day and a federal commemorative holiday. Who was César Chávez? Born in Arizona in 1927, Chávez was a Mexican-American migrant farmworker from the age of 10. After losing their property during the Great Depression, his family had to travel around the country farming and picking fruit and vegetables at measly wages to survive. It was this proximity to the hardships of migrant workers and having experienced the unfair treatment, low wages and poor working conditions himself that made him want to fight for better conditions. Trying to escape the migrant farmer life, he joined the U.S Navy at the age of 17, but regretted it and left two years later to go back to working in the fields, until 1952 when he became a labor organizer. It was in this year that he became a civil rights advocate, by joining the Community Service Organization and being an active member of it. In 1962 he co-founded the National Farm Workers Association with Dolores Huerta Chávez, where he unionized farmworkers, fought for their better pay and safer working conditions. The NFWA quickly became the first successful farmers union in America. In 1965, the NFWA joined forces with the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee, by organizing the first strike against grape growers. The strike lasted for five years and successfully ended with the grape growers offering the workers proper contracts and pay. One year later, these two associations were merged, and in 1972 officially became the United Farm Workers, of which Chávez was president until his death in 1993. César Chávez became notorious for the nonviolent ways in which he protested and fought for the values he believed in. He stood for the farmworkers’ rights by leading marches, boycotts and hunger strikes, and he did the same against racial discrimination towards Chicanos. After his death, 50 000 people attended his funeral, and he was posthumously awarded the Medal of Freedom by President Bill Clinton. How to celebrate César Chávez Day? This day became a commemoration to promote and encourage people to serve their communities. This is why community and civil rights leaders take this day to give speeches about the legacy and values of César Chávez, and how his work and struggles positively impacted society. 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0.2186824381351471, -0.009476492181420326, -0.3020339906215668, -0.7809054851531982, 0.1852388083934784, 0.4667387008666992, -0.5123082399368286, 0.5454230308532715, -0.5401978492736816, -0.07804667949676514, -0.5688169002532959, 0.28303372859954834, 0.06985341757535934, 0.23052546381950378, -0.4258567690849304, -0.4710442125797272, 0.03110053949058056, 0.15229374170303345, 0.05849652737379074, -0.3447492718696594, -0.33149898052215576, -0.25959593057632446, -0.1378270983695984, -0.0844922810792923, 0.3360717296600342, 0.007604498416185379, 0.11045094579458237, -0.020856376737356186 ]	6	César Chávez Day César Chavez day is an American federal commemorative holiday observed every year on March 31. It celebrates the birthday and work of civil rights and labor movement leader César Chávez. It is a state holiday in 10 states, such as California, Arizona and Colorado, where schools and state offices are closed, and people get the day off work. Check locally to see if this applies to you. History of César Chávez Day The birthday of César Chávez has been commemorated in the state of Nevada since 2003, and in 2009 a state law was passed proclaiming that the state’s governor has to make an annual declaration marking March 31 as César Chávez day. In 2008, then Senator Barack Obama presented the idea of declaring March 31 a federal holiday in honor of the civil rights activist. This was picked up and supported by several Grassroot Organizations. It was not until March 28, 2014, that now President Barack Obama officially proclaimed March 31st as César Chávez Day and a federal commemorative holiday. Who was César Chávez? Born in Arizona in 1927, Chávez was a Mexican-American migrant farmworker from the age of 10. After losing their property during the Great Depression, his family had to travel around the country farming and picking fruit and vegetables at measly wages to survive. It was this proximity to the hardships of migrant workers and having experienced the unfair treatment, low wages and poor working conditions himself that made him want to fight for better conditions. Trying to escape the migrant farmer life, he joined the U.S Navy at the age of 17, but regretted it and left two years later to go back to working in the fields, until 1952 when he became a labor organizer. It was in this year that he became a civil rights advocate, by joining the Community Service Organization and being an active member of it. In 1962 he co-founded the National Farm Workers Association with Dolores Huerta Chávez, where he unionized farmworkers, fought for their better pay and safer working conditions. The NFWA quickly became the first successful farmers union in America. In 1965, the NFWA joined forces with the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee, by organizing the first strike against grape growers. The strike lasted for five years and successfully ended with the grape growers offering the workers proper contracts and pay. One year later, these two associations were merged, and in 1972 officially became the United Farm Workers, of which Chávez was president until his death in 1993. César Chávez became notorious for the nonviolent ways in which he protested and fought for the values he believed in. He stood for the farmworkers’ rights by leading marches, boycotts and hunger strikes, and he did the same against racial discrimination towards Chicanos. After his death, 50 000 people attended his funeral, and he was posthumously awarded the Medal of Freedom by President Bill Clinton. How to celebrate César Chávez Day? This day became a commemoration to promote and encourage people to serve their communities. This is why community and civil rights leaders take this day to give speeches about the legacy and values of César Chávez, and how his work and struggles positively impacted society. This is also a day to bring the public’s attention to issues regarding worker’s rights, such as the need for proper medical coverage and fair wages.	763	ENGLISH	1
(Last Updated on : 01/03/2014) The Sauviras seem to have been an ancient people. Their country is mentioned as early as Baudhayana's Dharmasutra. It was at that time considered an impure country, situated outside the limits of Aryandom proper; and Aryans who happened to go there were required to perform a sacrifice of purification on their return. In later literature, the Sauviras are often connected with their neighbouring tribe, the Sindhus, and the inclusive name 'Sindhu-Sauvira', at once determined that the two tribes which were later regarded as one and the same were settled on the banks Sindhu or Indus. The Sauviras and Sindhus seem to have played an important part in the Kurukshetra war; they are described in the Bhismaparvan as having joined the Kauravas, along with the Bhargas, Andhras, Kiratas, Kosalas and Gandharas. The Sindhus and Sauviras are usually conjoined in the Puranas, though they are mentioned separately in the Vishnu Purana . According to the Markandeya Purana , they were located in the north but the Vishnu Purana places them in the extreme west along with the Hunas. Puranic tradition seems to point to the intimate relation of the Sauviras with the Sivis, and therefore with their neighbouring Usinaras as well. The Sauviras were traditionally descended from Suvira, one of the four sons of Sivi Ausinara. Towards the middle of the second century A.D., the land of the Sindhus and the Sauviras seem to have been administered by the Ksatrapa rulers of West India. It has been recorded in history that the Ksatrapas had wrested the country from the Kusanas, probably from one of the successors of Kanishka . After the era of the Ksatrapas, the reign of the region probably passed over to the Guptas, and later to the Maitrakas of Valabhi. This article is a stub. You can enrich by adding more information to it. Send your Write Up to [email protected]	<urn:uuid:f1d6f127-db5f-4039-a7e7-8a47e17fbac2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.indianetzone.com/47/sindhu_sauviras.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00474.warc.gz	en	0.980111	475	3.453125	3	[ -0.19936364889144897, 0.34901541471481323, -0.2902282774448395, -0.10796134173870087, -0.07586919516324997, -0.32973599433898926, 0.5070434212684631, 0.07301481068134308, -0.11573252081871033, 0.24702222645282745, -0.049004118889570236, -0.9572199583053589, 0.18210768699645996, 0.4732852578163147, 0.20277215540409088, -0.2697646915912628, -0.4467448592185974, 0.38966795802116394, -0.05406906455755234, 0.19456903636455536, 0.40336036682128906, -0.2542869746685028, 0.04041105508804321, -0.058483466506004333, 0.2089293748140335, 0.06086442247033119, 0.3238643407821655, -0.24713097512722015, -0.2772251069545746, -1.3049900531768799, 0.04022900387644768, -0.30138739943504333, 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-0.37091323733329773, 0.1332291215658188, 0.9471675753593445, 0.016155153512954712, -0.38695576786994934, -0.2120516151189804, 0.4529290497303009, -0.15849411487579346, -0.19376292824745178, 0.047050487250089645, 0.0792442336678505, 0.18177562952041626, 0.2338259518146515, -0.1002168282866478, -0.3936922252178192, -0.5837537050247192, -0.17648978531360626, -0.2544998824596405, -0.07613017410039902, -0.18443405628204346, 0.17215736210346222, -0.011518002487719059, 0.26170313358306885 ]	1	(Last Updated on : 01/03/2014) The Sauviras seem to have been an ancient people. Their country is mentioned as early as Baudhayana's Dharmasutra. It was at that time considered an impure country, situated outside the limits of Aryandom proper; and Aryans who happened to go there were required to perform a sacrifice of purification on their return. In later literature, the Sauviras are often connected with their neighbouring tribe, the Sindhus, and the inclusive name 'Sindhu-Sauvira', at once determined that the two tribes which were later regarded as one and the same were settled on the banks Sindhu or Indus. The Sauviras and Sindhus seem to have played an important part in the Kurukshetra war; they are described in the Bhismaparvan as having joined the Kauravas, along with the Bhargas, Andhras, Kiratas, Kosalas and Gandharas. The Sindhus and Sauviras are usually conjoined in the Puranas, though they are mentioned separately in the Vishnu Purana . According to the Markandeya Purana , they were located in the north but the Vishnu Purana places them in the extreme west along with the Hunas. Puranic tradition seems to point to the intimate relation of the Sauviras with the Sivis, and therefore with their neighbouring Usinaras as well. The Sauviras were traditionally descended from Suvira, one of the four sons of Sivi Ausinara. Towards the middle of the second century A.D., the land of the Sindhus and the Sauviras seem to have been administered by the Ksatrapa rulers of West India. It has been recorded in history that the Ksatrapas had wrested the country from the Kusanas, probably from one of the successors of Kanishka . After the era of the Ksatrapas, the reign of the region probably passed over to the Guptas, and later to the Maitrakas of Valabhi. This article is a stub. You can enrich by adding more information to it. Send your Write Up to [email protected]	464	ENGLISH	1
BASIC is the brainchild of John G. Kemeny and Thomas E. Kurtz, two mathematicians who tried to simplify the use of the computer. Kemeny said, “Our vision was that every student on campus should have access to a computer, and any faculty member should be able to use a computer in the classroom whenever appropriate. It was as simple as that.” They had developed previous programming languages without much success. The technology was also uncooperative: batch processing took too long. They also co-developed the Dartmouth Time Sharing System (DTSS) which allowed multiple users to edit and run programs in BASIC. DTSS also had a single machine divide up its processing time among many users, which led to interest in developing a system that used DTSS and a new language for people outside of science and technology fields. During BASIC’s invention in 1964, computers were only able to be used by scientists and other people who were trained in using technology. Hewlett-Packard developed a series of computers for BASIC and DTSS from the 1960s to the 1980s. Early computer games were programmed in BASIC as well. One of the graduate students that was on the BASIC implementation team was Mary Kenneth Keller, who was the first woman to earn a Ph.D. in computer science. Another interesting concept was making the compiler of BASIC free of charge, which made it open-source in nature, like today’s Linux operating system. In the 1970s, many variants of BASIC came through, leading Kemeny and Kurtz’s version to be called Dartmouth BASIC. One of the most famous was Dennis Allison’s Tiny BASIC, which was a version of BASIC created for microcomputers. Altair BASIC was developed by Bill Gates and Paul Allen in the same year, forming Microsoft. The first version of Altair BASIC was written by Gates and Allen themselves along with programmer Monte Davidoff, who was also a dorm mate of Gates. The Apple II, which came out in 1977, used BASIC, as well as Commodore and the Atari 8-bit computers. The IBM PC and MS-DOS all utilized BASIC as well. However, by the late 1980s, users were already using pre-made applications that were made by other people, and the C language had replaced BASIC for app development. Microsoft came out with Visual Basic in 1991, which was object-oriented and generally used for the macro language for Microsoft Excel. It later found use for other custom business applications. Those who knew Visual Basic in the 1990s were considered skilled job seekers; Microsoft also created VBScript in 1996 and Visual Basic.NET in 2001, which retained syntax that reflected BASIC but had the same power as C# and Java. Kemeny and Kurtz created True BASIC in 1983, the direct successor to Dartmouth BASIC which they created almost 20 years earlier. While we can talk about any invention that jump-started the digital age such as the integrated circuit or home computers such as the Apple II or Commodore 64, we have to remember what is under the hood of these basic computers. After all, beauty is said to be on the inside, and BASIC was the father of all programming languages we know today. Also published in GADGETS MAGAZINE November 2019 Issue Words by Jose Alvarez	<urn:uuid:32b24c03-49f7-4432-8d8f-c901d728de76>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gadgetsmagazine.com.ph/lifestyle/relic/relic-basic	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00151.warc.gz	en	0.981859	701	3.59375	4	[ -0.6168045997619629, 0.2550804018974304, 0.17234443128108978, -0.5978259444236755, -0.45632243156433105, -0.039794377982616425, -0.2408132553100586, 0.16562363505363464, 0.01498580351471901, -0.11349013447761536, 0.08436739444732666, 0.2353295236825943, 0.27871519327163696, -0.18847355246543884, 0.07602498680353165, 0.029472671449184418, -0.2558507025241852, -0.03018982708454132, -0.06053820997476578, 0.09111130982637405, 0.5244942307472229, -0.44946426153182983, -0.27173686027526855, -0.33556532859802246, 0.15689316391944885, 0.04432445019483566, -0.31660816073417664, -0.28914979100227356, -0.11616534739732742, -1.2801663875579834, 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-0.37886014580726624, -0.10774298757314682, -0.26548680663108826, -0.16860821843147278, 0.9672068357467651, 0.4361591339111328, 0.05721891671419144, -0.7450140714645386, 0.16310271620750427, -0.026467999443411827, -0.013239234685897827, 0.15492641925811768, 0.34262219071388245, 0.1651979684829712, 0.15461361408233643, 0.3041020631790161, -0.3139609396457672, -0.040329709649086, -0.30681172013282776, -0.33160555362701416, 0.03223976492881775, -0.49995139241218567, 0.288821816444397, 0.6771383881568909, 0.3815805912017822 ]	5	BASIC is the brainchild of John G. Kemeny and Thomas E. Kurtz, two mathematicians who tried to simplify the use of the computer. Kemeny said, “Our vision was that every student on campus should have access to a computer, and any faculty member should be able to use a computer in the classroom whenever appropriate. It was as simple as that.” They had developed previous programming languages without much success. The technology was also uncooperative: batch processing took too long. They also co-developed the Dartmouth Time Sharing System (DTSS) which allowed multiple users to edit and run programs in BASIC. DTSS also had a single machine divide up its processing time among many users, which led to interest in developing a system that used DTSS and a new language for people outside of science and technology fields. During BASIC’s invention in 1964, computers were only able to be used by scientists and other people who were trained in using technology. Hewlett-Packard developed a series of computers for BASIC and DTSS from the 1960s to the 1980s. Early computer games were programmed in BASIC as well. One of the graduate students that was on the BASIC implementation team was Mary Kenneth Keller, who was the first woman to earn a Ph.D. in computer science. Another interesting concept was making the compiler of BASIC free of charge, which made it open-source in nature, like today’s Linux operating system. In the 1970s, many variants of BASIC came through, leading Kemeny and Kurtz’s version to be called Dartmouth BASIC. One of the most famous was Dennis Allison’s Tiny BASIC, which was a version of BASIC created for microcomputers. Altair BASIC was developed by Bill Gates and Paul Allen in the same year, forming Microsoft. The first version of Altair BASIC was written by Gates and Allen themselves along with programmer Monte Davidoff, who was also a dorm mate of Gates. The Apple II, which came out in 1977, used BASIC, as well as Commodore and the Atari 8-bit computers. The IBM PC and MS-DOS all utilized BASIC as well. However, by the late 1980s, users were already using pre-made applications that were made by other people, and the C language had replaced BASIC for app development. Microsoft came out with Visual Basic in 1991, which was object-oriented and generally used for the macro language for Microsoft Excel. It later found use for other custom business applications. Those who knew Visual Basic in the 1990s were considered skilled job seekers; Microsoft also created VBScript in 1996 and Visual Basic.NET in 2001, which retained syntax that reflected BASIC but had the same power as C# and Java. Kemeny and Kurtz created True BASIC in 1983, the direct successor to Dartmouth BASIC which they created almost 20 years earlier. While we can talk about any invention that jump-started the digital age such as the integrated circuit or home computers such as the Apple II or Commodore 64, we have to remember what is under the hood of these basic computers. After all, beauty is said to be on the inside, and BASIC was the father of all programming languages we know today. Also published in GADGETS MAGAZINE November 2019 Issue Words by Jose Alvarez	710	ENGLISH	1

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