About Those “Polar Lava Tubes”

When is a discovery not a discovery? When it’s just plain wrong.

Sinuous rilles (lava channels and tubes) of the Rima Prinz complex in Oceanus Procellarum. Some segments of rilles are roofed over to form a tube (the "gap" between the linear features at right center), which might be drained of lava, forming a cave. This area is in a mare region, where internally generated bodies of liquid rock (magma) are erupted as lava. (NASA, ASU LROC)

For decades, the idea of useable caves on the Moon has been studied and discussed at various venues and science gatherings. Our fascination with the availability of underground planetary structures stems from the possible benefits such features may afford humans trying to live in an off-world, hostile environment. Humans are vulnerable on the Moon because it lacks the protective atmosphere and magnetosphere that we enjoy here on Earth. A thick layer of solid rock provides protection for people and equipment from galactic cosmic rays and solar particle events, and thus, a lunar lava tube cave becomes a very attractive place. In addition, as rock is a good thermal insulator, an underground void space most likely would be thermally stable, lacking the enormous temperature swings (more than 250° C) of the ordinary lunar surface.

In addition to providing shielding from radiation, the interiors of lunar lava caves would be very cold (probably around -100° C), possibly preserving trapped volatiles. If such water deposition occurs, it would be an extremely slow process. There is no groundwater on the Moon; water is added by impacting objects. Thus, any addition of water comes in the form of vapor, most of it lost to space and the remainder finding its way into lava tubes or permanently dark craters at the poles.

The poles are attractive destinations because of the water ice residing in the permanently dark craters close (~100-200 km) to the poles. Due to the obliquity of the spin axis of the Moon, the sun doesn’t rise and set here, but circles around just above the horizon, maintaining a near constant surface temperature of about -50° C. The interiors of polar craters act as cold traps, accumulating water ice for billions of years. Quasi-permanent sunlight is available on the nearby peaks—places where electrical power could be generated nearly continuously by solar arrays. These unique features make the Moon’s poles the most valuable piece of real estate in the Solar System. To be able to live on the Moon, having the availability of power is everything, and finding energy near deposits of water ice is priceless.

So, naturally, there’s been a flurry of coverage in the media about last week’s press release from the SETI Institute, claiming the discovery of lava tube skylights (surface entrances to underground caves formed by past running lava) located “near the North Pole of the Moon.” Unquestionably we would make use of lava tubes near the Moon’s poles—if they existed. However, the problem with the discovery of polar lava tubes is two-fold—they are not polar, and they are not lava tubes.

Spudis polar lava tube FIGURE.jpg
Nested group of Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter images showing the alleged lava tube openings on the floor of Philolaus crater according to the SETI press release. (NASA/ASU/ACT Quickmap images)

The SETI Institute press release describes features found on the floor of Philolaus, an impact crater about 70 km in diameter. At 72° N, 33° W, this crater is over 500 km (more than 300 miles) from the Moon’s north pole (the Moon’s surface area is roughly the size of the continent of Africa). Unlike areas that are near the Moon’s north pole, the location of Philolaus crater is like most of the lunar surface, which experiences the usual lunar 28-day diurnal cycle of 14 days of blazing sunlight (100° C), followed by 14 days of bone-chilling (-150° C) darkness. It is very difficult to survive the 14-day lunar night without a reliable source of electrical power. The best way to address this problem is to deploy a nuclear reactor, which can generate power continuously, but such a reactor does not now exist and we are unlikely to develop one of sufficient size any time within the next couple of decades.

Philolaus is an extremely fresh crater, with rough, blocky surfaces and rayed ejecta. It is very young in lunar terms (probably much less than one billion years old) and thus, has had little time to accumulate much water. In contrast, the permanently shadowed areas near the poles—over 500 km distant from Philolaus—have been exposed to space for at least the last 2-3 billion years—capturing water continuously, as molecules migrate poleward from the lower latitudes. These molecules can be trapped by the extreme cold inside the permanently dark craters (as cold as -250° C, colder than the surface of Pluto), and as the water (of any variety) cannot sublime or be lost to space at such temperatures, it is permanently preserved there.

The features described as “lava tubes” in the press release do not occur in lava, as there is no lava in the crater Philolaus. The floor of this crater is lined with impact melt, rock produced by the intense shock of the collision of an asteroid with the Moon. Impact melt rock is formed from crystallized molten silicate liquids, as is internally generated lava. However, in the latter case, lava is erupted from a source vent as a continuous stream of liquid rock. The lava spreads out onto the surface and cools from the outside inward. As the lava continues to erupt, the gradual constriction of flow inward results in a subsurface conduit of molten lava encased within a crust of solidified rock. When the eruption ceases, this lava may drain out from the tube, leaving a void space, or cave, behind it. In some cases, this feature is ephemeral and immediately collapses due to the overlying weight of the solidified lava crust. However, on occasion, the crust is thick enough to maintain its structural integrity, resulting in the creation of a cave.

Impact melt is not lava. The shock melt is produced in a small zone around the point of impact, and coats the growing cavity during formation of the crater. The impact process is dynamic, with many particles in motion; these unmelted fragments (clasts) intimately mix with the shock melt, quenching and solidifying the impact melt sheet very quickly. Such a situation is not analogous to the continuous supply of magma and flow of uniformly melted lava that characterizes a volcanic eruption. Although we often see flows of impact melt around fresh craters, they are lobate, tabular layers of rock, sometimes with levees that outline a channel, but never a tube. They do not flow very far (usually less than a kilometer or two), and seem to be have been molten for a very short period of time. Neither condition is conducive to the formation of lava tubes.

The floor of Philolaus is covered with fractures, some of which are made up of aligned rows of pits. These features can resemble lava tubes in that we often see aligned pits as parts of lunar sinuous rilles. However, in the case of fresh crater floors, the pits are not produced by collapsed roof segments of drained lava tubes but by the degassing and settling of the molten impact melt sheet after crater formation. This melt sheet contains many inclusions of non-melted material picked up during the impact, ranging in size from a few millimeters to several tens of meters across. As the melt sheet cools and settles, the liquid portion drains away from the unmelted clastic material, leaving mounds and cracks that resemble (but in reality are not) lava tube skylights. They are unlikely to lead to large caves, as the draining liquid leaves behind loose crater debris that may collapse into the void. That said, it is possible that small void areas might exist in melt sheets, but they would be on the order of a few meters across, and at least partly filled with rock debris.

The poles are the desirable locales on the Moon because: 1) the peaks of near-permanent sunlight allow us to reside continuously on the Moon without the requirement of developing a nuclear power source; and 2) they are the locations on the Moon known to contain significant deposits of water ice. I am puzzled by this obsession with finding lunar lava tubes to inhabit. It’s true that living underground on the Moon is highly desirable, but this can be easily achieved by placing a habitat module in a small crater, then backfilling it with regolith (local dirt). No lava tube is required—we simply bury our habitat beneath the lunar surface.

In contrast to the claims in the SETI Institute press release, Philolaus crater is not anywhere near the polar ice deposits. Philolaus is an impact crater; it is not a lava bed with lava tubes. And the postulated volatiles within its “caves” have not been proven to exist.

Journalists must remain vigilant when circulating science and engineering achievements announced through press releases. At a minimum, they should dig into the story and learn if the work has been submitted to reputable scientific journals that follow a peer review process. The failure to adhere to even such a minimal investigative posture does not engender excellence, nor does it bode well for science or journalism.


Lorenzo Rimella

Alan Turing Institute

Exploiting locality in high-dimensional factorial hidden Markov models

Statistics Seminar

18th October 2019, 2:00 pm – 2:45 pm
Fry Building, G.13

Hidden Markov models are statistical models which explain patterns in observed data in terms of the evolution over time of a process which is not observed directly. The main challenge is generally to infer the conditional probabilities of the hidden states given the observations, which are technically called: filtering distribution (if it is the conditional distribution over the data up to the current time step) and smoothing distribution (if it is the conditional distribution over all the data). HMMs are extremely flexible and they have found multiple applications across the Machine Learning community. Unfortunately their prohibitive computational cost in high-dimension has significantly limited their use. We propose a low-cost algorithms for approximate filtering and smoothing in high-dimensional Factorial hidden Markov models, a sub-family of HMMs. The whole approximation procedure is built upon the idea of localisation in the factor graph associated with the emission distribution. This involves building a sub-graph by discarding likelihood factors according to a chosen graph distance, which allows the exponential-in-dimension cost of exact filtering and smoothing to be avoided. The algorithm is also supported by strong mathematical proofs, based on a statistical physics tool: the Dobrushin's theorem. Here we prove that the approximation accuracy, measured in a local total variation norm, is dimension-free in the sense that as the overall dimension of the model increases the error bounds we derive do not necessarily degrade. The factorial structure of the likelihood function which we exploit arises naturally when data have known spatial or network structure. We demonstrate the new algorithms on synthetic examples and on a London Underground passenger flow problem, where the factor graph is effectively given by the train network.

Organiser: Mathieu Gerber

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Popular RV Cooking: Getting Your Grill On in Fifth Wheel Trailers

Part of the beauty of the RV lifestyle is the sheer accessibility of the outdoors. Many find that they can extend the time they spend enjoying the beauties of nature by using outdoor grills attached to their fifth wheel trailers when preparing meals. Some RVers feel very comfortable grilling, but there are those who are new to the experience. If grilling isn’t part of the RVer’s cooking repertoire, helpful hints and tips and recommended tried and true recipes should be considered to increase the chances of success. That way the learning process is enjoyable and will result in an RVing future filled with grilling success and tasty meals both prepared and enjoyed in the great outdoors.

Useful Grilling Hints and Tips:

  1. Testing steak “doneness” can be tricky, but there’s one surefire way to easily pinpoint it by touch. When the hand is held out palm up and all fingers are relaxed, the pad of the thumb will feel similar to the “rare” steak. Placing the thumb and Index finger together provides an example of how to identify a “medium rare” steak by touch. The same spot indicates a “medium” steak when the thumb and middle finger are touching. Medium-well is indicated when the thumb and ring finger are touching and Well-done is indicated when the thumb and pinky are touching. It’s one of the easiest methods of identifying the “doneness” of a steak and any griller can successfully utilize the technique.
  2. Leaner meats generate less smoke and decrease the risk of burning burgers on the grill. When the grill tends to flare up and burn dinner, it may help to purchase leaner meat. Fat in the meat melts during grilling, dripping down where it causes quick bursts of flame that can result in a drastically overcooked meal.
  3. Grilling isn’t limited to steaks and burgers. Many expert and beginning grillers alike find that they can easily prepare an entire meal on the grill including: entrée, side vegetable, fruit dishes, desserts, etc.

The best thing to do is to purchase a grilling cookbook to keep in the fifth wheel trailer or to compile an array of seemingly easy grilling recipes from online sources prior to departing on the next trip. For now, we recommend the following recipe for beginning grillers:

Grilled Tri-Tip

2 tbsp. garlic powder

1½ tbsp. kosher salt

1 tsp. freshly ground black pepper

2 tsp. dried parsley

1 beef tri-tip (2 to 2½ lbs.), preferably with some fat on one side

Mix garlic powder, salt, pepper and parsley together in a small bowl before rubbing it into the meat. After rubbing it in, let it sit for 30 minutes. While it is sitting, prepare the grill (charcoal or gas). The recipe requires medium-high heat (indirect). If necessary, add chips. Once it is prepared, set the tri-tip over direct heat with the fat side up. Sear it until it is browned. With a gas grill, the lid will need to be closed. This should take between 3 and 5 minutes. Once browned, turn tri-tip over and sear the other side. Move the tri-tip to indirect heat area and continue to grill. Turn the meat every 10 minutes until cooked through as desired; recommended 25 to 35 minutes.  Move the tri-tip to a cutting board and let it sit for 15 minutes. The grill can be left on if garlic bread or vegetables are going to be grilled to go along with the tri-tip. Slice the meat across the grain and serve. It goes well with garlic bread, steamed (or grilled vegetables) and potato based dishes.

Becoming comfortable grilling meals can increase the amount of time spent enjoying the outdoors, maximizing the purpose of fifth wheel trailers. Many also find that they enjoy the fact that they haven’t made a mess in the kitchen. Grilling isn’t the only way to create tasty meals while on the road, but it is one of the most popular for obvious reasons. Grilling allows for a wide variety of dishes from simple to complex making it the perfect solution for any number of meal choices and situations. Start with the basics, and get your grill on during your next road trip.

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Composition of Matter

Matter anything that has mass and takes up space
Mass a measure of the amount of matter in an object; a fundamental property of an object that is not affected by the forces that act on the object, such as the gravitational force
Atom the smallest unit of an element that maintains the chemical properties of that element
Nucleus in physical science, an atom's central region, which is made up of proton and neutrons
Proton a subatomic particle taht has a positve charge and that is located in the nucleus of an atom; the number of protons of the nucleus is the atomic number, which determines the identity of an element
Mass number the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
Electron a subatomic particle that has a negative charge
Orbital a region in the atom where there is a high probability of findnig electrons
Compound a substance made up of atoms of two or more different elements joined by chemical bonds
Chemical bond the attractive force that holds atoms or ions together
Covalent bond a bond formed when atoms share one or more pairs of electrons
Ionic bond the attractive forces between oppositely charged ions, which form when electrons are transferred from one atom to another
Created by: BarbaraC16


A2 - Facilitating belonging: Addressing the barriers faced by women doctoral students

Day Day 1
Code A2
Start time 15:30
Room Henley
Work with Doctoral Researchers

Rachel Handforth, Research Fellow, Sheffield Hallam University

Workshop overview:

This workshop will present the findings of my doctoral research, which illuminate the barriers to belonging that women doctoral students encounter during their studies. It will consider how academic communities and cultures can preclude or facilitate belonging for women doctoral students, drawing on literature highlighting the ongoing marginalisation of women in academic spaces. In this workshop, I consider the long-term implications of this, for individuals, institutions, and the higher education sector.

The first part of the workshop outlines the specific barriers that women doctoral students face to belonging, including gendered expectations of their abilities. I draw attention to the negative impact of this on career aspirations; individuals often became discouraged from an academic career because they struggled to establish a sense of belonging as doctoral students. Finally, I outline how institutions can facilitate women doctoral students' belonging; something which is vital to create a truly inclusive higher education sector.

Workshop topics covered:

  • Understanding how doctoral students negotiate belonging to their academic communities
  • How academic cultures can facilitate or preclude belonging as a doctoral student
  • Gendered barriers to belonging
  • Implications of not belonging- for individuals and institutions
  • How academic communities and cultures can facilitate belonging

Themes covered:

Workshop outcomes:

By the end of the workshop, participants will have:

  • Understanding of the barriers to belonging experienced by women doctoral students
  • Understanding of the individual and structural implications of experiencing marginalisation as a woman doctoral student
  • Knowledge of strategies which can address these barriers and facilitate belonging
  • Advice on how to create an inclusive academic culture which values women doctoral students

Presentation with small group activities


Full-Text Search：
《Packaging Engineering》 2014-21
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Digital Watermarking Algorithm in Contourlet Domain Based on Computer Generated Holography

BAI Tao-tao;LIU Zhen;LU Peng;Shanghai University of Science and Technology;
Objective To propose a digital watermarking algorithm in contourlet domain based on computer generated holography. Methods Firstly, a binary watermarks was converted to a holographic watermark using the computer generated holography by the conjugate-symmetric extension. Secondly, the original image was subjected to two-dimensional contourlet transform, and the intermediate frequency was transformed into eight directional subband coefficients. Finally, the holographic watermark was embedded into one directional subband coefficients. Results Experimental results demonstrated that the proposed method could well resist attacks such as low-pass filtering, noise, cropping and JPEG lossy compression.And the algorithm could also survive print-scan attack. The original image was not needed during watermark extraction.The proposed algorithm was blind. Conclusion The watermarking algorithm proposed could be widely used in copyright protection of digital images.
【Fund】： 上海市研究生创新基金项目(JWCXSL1302)
【CateGory Index】： TS853.6
Download(CAJ format) Download(PDF format)


Muscle Building Advice That’s Proven To Work

It can be tough to build muscle. Results don’t appear overnight and it is easy to get discouraged. Therefore, it’s essential to ensure that you’re taking the correct steps and employing the best strategies for building your muscles as quickly and effectively as possible. This article will put you on the right track to do just that.

TIP! Proper warm-up exercises are essential when you are trying to increase your muscle mass. As muscles gain strength, they will undergo greater stress, and will thus be more vulnerable to injuries.

A lot of people fail to use proper technique when lifting weights because they are too focused on speed. No matter what type of exercise you are focussing on, keep your reps slower and concentrate on technique. You will find that you get much better results than if you speed through your routine. Take time to be certain you are doing the exercise correctly.

When muscle development, be sure to have a lot of protein. Include a variety of lean proteins and healthy fats in your diet for the best results. If your body isn’t properly fueled with protein, then you can’t build muscle mass. Your goal should be to eat protein as a main part of at least two meals and one snack each day.

TIP! Do not overlook the importance of carbohydrates if you are attempting to build muscle. Your body needs carbs to survive the grueling workouts to which you are subjecting it.

TIP! On the days you have designated for muscle growth exercises, you must ensure that you eat well. Consume more calories about an hour before you are going to exercise.

You can cheat a tad when lifting. Using a bit of your body to pump out a few more reps is a great way to boost your workout. You don’t want to cheat a lot, though. Keep your rep speed under control. You should never compromise your form.

TIP! One deterrent of successful muscle-building can be slow-growing muscle groups. Use a fill set to work on these problematic muscles.

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Interior rooms were given sculptural forms so they appear as objects in a larger space.
Interior wating area is located to allow indirect light from the exterior to fill the space.
Corridors walls create rhythm and allow natural light to filter through from the exterior.
Corner office was arranged to showcase views out toward the community in which it serves.
Light shelves create indirect illumination and bounce natural light around rooms helping reduce glare.
Transparent office partitions include various textured glass panels.

Proposed Projects

Architect of Record: KRIKOR Architecture

Designer + Project Architect: Gregory Mason

Location: Jackson Hole, Wyoming

                 Teton County

Gary Bennett State Farm Insurance Agency has proven to be one of the leaders in the nation.  When I was contacted to design their new offices it was clear it had to be a flagship project to showcase their celebrated success.

Every detail of the design revolved around driving natural light from the buildings exterior deep into the interior spaces without creating hot spots or glare.  Indirect light shelves were designed to bounce artificial and natural light around creating uniform illumination.

Interior spaces were designed to take on a sculptural form and not go up to the ceiling.  This helped them feel like objects in a larger more open space while still giving them their required semi-private function.

Let's get INSPIRED!


The Full Wiki

More info on Music of the Isle of Man

Music of the Isle of Man: Map

Wikipedia article:

Map showing all locations mentioned on Wikipedia article:

The Isle of Manmarker is a small island nation in the Irish Seamarker, between Great Britainmarker and Irelandmarker. Its rich and varied culture reflects Celtic, Norse and other influences, with its neighbours, Scotlandmarker, Irelandmarker England and Walesmarker playing their part. The island is not part of the United Kingdommarker.

There are other types of Manx music that are not folk like Rock, Blues, jazz and pop. The folk Music began late in the 20th century, alongside a general revival of the Manx language and culture. The 1970s revival was kickstarted, after the 1974 death of the last native speaker of Manx, by a music festival called in Ramseymarker [51339].

Prominent musicians of the Manx musical revival include King Chiaullee ( band website), Skeeal ( myspace), The Mannin Folk, Mactullagh Vannin ( myspace), Moot ( myspace) and many others. The Manx Heritage Foundation provides a central Myspace for Manx Music and Dance ( myspace), which has links to most performers. Other artists who have produced CDs include Emma Christian ( - Beneath the Twilight), (voice, harp and recorder), and harpist and producer Charles Guard (Avenging and Bright), an administrator at the Manx Heritage Foundation. Many of the web entries about Manx Music stem from Cliff McGann's 1996 article which is now somewhat out of date: Cliff McGann article.

Prior to the 15th century, little can be determined about the character of music on the Isle of Man. There are many carved crosses from this era, but they depict a total of two musicians, one lur player and a harpist. Songs from this era may have had Scandinavian origins; some also bear similarities to Irish and Scottish music. The song (the Manx sword dance), is very similar to a lullaby from the Hebridesmarker and is also said to have been a ritual dance during the Scandinavian era.

The earliest written evidence describes fiddle music and a variety of folk dances. There was no harp tradition as was otherwise prevalent in Celtic music. English folk song were very popular, later including broadside ballad, jigs and reel. Also extant were traditional Gaelic psalm-singing and other church music.

19th century

Church music is the most documented Manx music of the 19th century. Lining out was a common technique, as it was throughout Great Britainmarker and Irelandmarker. West Gallery musicians performed for special occasions, using locally-composed or well-known compositions. Organ were a later importation that became standard in most of the island's churches. The first collection of Manx church songs was printed in 1799, and was followed by many other collections, though it was not until the 1870s and 1880s that Manx music began to be published in any great quantity, as drawing-room ballads, religious songs, and choral arrangements all became popular. The proliferation of this music coincided with a boom in the tourism industry for the Isle, and Manx music-hall and dance-hall songs and dances saw increased demand. Derby Castle and the Palace Hall became two of the most prominent venues in the British Islesmarker during this era, and there were a number of thriving smaller establishments. Manx language songs, in particular, benefited from the Gaelic revival from the 19th century onwards.

20th century

Though West Gallery music continued into the 1950s, by the 20th century instrumental music accompanied most worship on the Isle of Manmarker. Later in the 20th century, Manx church musical traditions slowly declined. The legacy of immigration, from Englandmarker and elsewhere, has brought in many new styles of music to the island.

The Manx Heritage Foundation has a dedicated Manx Music Development Team comprising a Manx Music Specialist who works with the IOM Department of Education to encourage the development of Manx music in the school curriculum and a Manx Music Development Officer, who works to promote Manx Music and Dance in the wider community. CDs by bands, soloists and Gaelic choirs are being produced all of the time.

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Multi-species Fishing Trips

This trip will target 3-5 different species depending on the area fished. Halibut, salmon, rockfish, lingcod, and yelloweye are a few of the
targeted species. You will travel farther out into the Gulf of Alaska where the colder, deeper waters have some of the most amazing and prehistoric looking rockfish. The record lingcod caught is 86 pounds! Limits based on current regulations made by ADFG. Weather will play a big part of how far we can travel out. Rockfish are found in rock formations a great distance away from Homer. They can be found in the same locations where larger halibut and rockfish are.

You can expect a few hours travel time on the boat before we reach the fishing grounds. Along the way you can enjoy the ride and soak in the sights that Kachemak Bay provides. The farther out we go into the Gulf of Alaska, the more likely we are to come across wildlife that you may not see in the bay. Again, weather plays a big part on how far out we can travel. If the waters are too rough to make it out to these locations, Captain Dan will head to his best fishing spots to make sure you get the best out of your multi-species trip.