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For Health Science Students

General Pathology

Mesele Bezabeh, Abiye Tesfaye, Bahiru Ergicho,
Mengistu Erke, Seyoum Mengistu,
Alemayehu Bedane, Abiyot Desta

J imma University, Gondar University
Haramaya University, Dedub University

the Ethiopia Ministry of Health, and the Ethiopia Ministry of Education

Important Guidelines for Printing and Photocopying

2004 by Mesele Bezabeh, Abiye Tesfaye, Bahiru Ergicho, Mengistu, Erke,
Seyoum Mengistu, Alemayehu Bedane, Abiyot Desta

All rights reserved. Except as expressly provided above, no part of this publication may
without written permission of the author or authors.

students and faculty in a health care field.

Dear Student,

Welcome to the exciting & fascinating world of pathology! Up to now in your studies, you
have been learning the normal features of human beings (i.e. anatomy, physiology, etc).
Now it is time to introduce you to the abnormalities that can occur in humans i.e. to
diseases. Pathology is a scientific study of diseases. In this book, you will learn the basic
mechanisms of diseases. Pathology is divided into general & systemic pathology for
pedagogical reasons. General pathology covers the basic mechanisms of diseases whereas
only general pathology. And it is divided into ten chapters on - Introduction, Cell injury,
Inflammation, Healing, Hemodynamic disorders, Genetic diseases, Immunopathology,
Neoplasia, Metabolic diseases, & Selected infectious diseases. Most of these topics
represent the major categories of diseases that can occur in different organ systems. For
example, acute inflammation can occur in different organs but wherever it occurs its
mechanism is the same. That is, an acute inflammation in the skin has the same
mechanisms & features as an acute inflammation of the meninges. The same principle
applies to the other topics covered in general pathology. Therefore, if one knows general
pathology well, one can apply this knowledge to diseases in the various organ systems.
Hence, your general pathology knowledge will facilitate your understanding of systemic
diseases (Systemic Pathology). Therefore, the whole purpose of general pathology is to
help you understand systemic diseases i.e. Systemic Pathology. So, even though, you will
understand the basic mechanisms of diseases common to various types of illnesses, it
doesnt mean that this book has covers all of pathology in as much as it didnt cover
systemic pathology. Therefore, after reading this book, you are encouraged to read books
on systemic pathology. The reason for not including systemic pathology in this book was
because the book conceived when the previous curriculum was being implemented. At this
juncture, we would like to call up on all professional colleagues to include systemic
pathology in the pathology lecture for Health Officer students since this is very basic for
understanding clinical medicine. We would also like to mention that the new curriculum for
Health Officer students includes systemic pathology. We also call up on all those concerned
to write a book on systemic pathology for health science students. General pathology is
necessary but not sufficient for understanding clinical medicine.

The main reason for writing this book is the absence of standardized uniformity in the
pathology courses given to health science students. Health science students* here means
health officer, pharmacy, dentistry, midwifery, anesthesiology, nursing (B.SC.), &
physiotherapy students. There was no uniformity in what was taught to these students in the
various institutions in Ethiopia. We hope this book will alleviate this problem regarding
general pathology.

In writing this book, we have tried to make it as clear & as brief as possible. Since too much
brevity may compromise understanding, we have been a bit liberal in some areas in
including some details which are necessary for the students understanding. This is done to
encourage understanding rather than memorization.

However, medical students & even those beyond can use this book for review.

Abiye Tesfaye, MD, Editor

Proper training of health care workers is the starting point for improving the health status of
a nation. Having good standardized textbooks contributes a lot to the proper training of
health care workers. The Carter Center in Addis Ababa initiated the idea of writing
standardized textbooks for health science students in Ethiopia to tackle the current critical
lack of such books. It funded everything from the inception of this book up to its completion.
In addition to initiating the idea of writing the book, The Carter Center paid allowances to the
authors, arranged appropriate & conducive environment for the writing & reviewing process,
& covered all the publishing cost. By doing so, we think, The Carter Center has contributed
a lot to the improvement of the health science education & thereby to the betterment of the
public health status in Ethiopia. For all of these reasons, our gratitude to the Carter Center in
Addis Ababa is immense & deep! We immeasurably thank Ato Aklilu (of The Carter
Center in Addis Ababa) for his immense understanding, fatherly guidance, encouragement,
& patience. Without his frequent stirring, this work would not have come into fruition.

We also thank Dr. Wondwossen Ergete (Associate Professor of Pathology at the Addis
Ababa University) for evaluating our work & giving us invaluable suggestions. Ato Getu
Degu (Associate Professor of Biostatistics at the Public Health Department of Gondar
University) efficiently organized the writing process in Gondar. Therefore, we thank him.

At the end, even though we tried our best to be as accurate as possible, we bear all the
responsibilities for any inadvertent mistakes this book may have.

Your comments regarding this book are very much welcome. And you can send them to the
following address:
Dr. Mesele Bezabeh, MD
Associate Professor of Pathology
Jimma University, Medical Faculty
P.O. Box
Jimma, Ethiopia

Dr. Abiye Tesfaye Overall Editor & the Chapter on Genetic Diseases
Dr. Mesele Bezabeh Inflammation, Immunopathology, Neoplasia, & Selected Infectious
Dr. Mengitu Erke Hemodynamic disorders
Dr. Bahiru Ergicho Cell Injury *
Dr. Seyoum Mengistu Introduction & Healing
Dr. Alemayehu Bedane Metabolic Diseases
Dr. Abiyot Desta Environmental Diseases
The preparation of this book went through many stages. First, each author wrote his
chapter. Then all of the authors met in the offices of The Carter Center in Addis Ababa to
collectively revise & comment on each others writings. Then all the chapters were given to
Dr. Abiye Tesfaye for compilation & overall edition.

Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction to Pathology
Chapter 2: Cellular Reactions to Injury
Chapter 3: Inflammation
Chapter 4: Healing

Chapter 5: Hemodynamic Disorders
Chapter 6: Genetic Diseases
Chapter 7: Immunopathology
Chapter 8: Selected Tropical Diseases

X. Fungal infections (Candidiasis, Cryptococcosis, Aspergillosis) .......................... 183
Chapter 9: Neoplasia
Chapter 10: Metabolic Diseases
Chapter 11: Environmental Diseases

I. Learning Objectives

Upon completing this chapter students should be able to:
1. Define pathology
2. Discuss the core aspects of disease in pathology
3. Know the diagnostic techniques used in pathology
4. Know the various categories of the causes of diseases
5. Know the course, outcome, consequences of diseases

II. The core aspects of diseases in pathology

Pathology is the study of disease by scientific methods. The word pathology came from the
Latin words patho & logy. Patho means disease and logy means study, therefore
pathology is a scientific study of disease. Diseases may, in turn, be defined as an abnormal
variation in structure or function of any part of the body. Pathology gives explanations of a
disease by studying the following four aspects of the disease.
1. Etiology,
2. Pathogenesis,
3. Morphologic changes and
4. Functional derangements and clinical significance.

1. Etiology
Etiology of a disease means the cause of the disease. If the cause of a disease is known it
is called primary etiology. If the cause of the disease is unknown it is called idiopathic.
Knowledge or discovery of the primary cause remains the backbone on which a diagnosis
can be made, a disease understood, & a treatment developed. There are two major classes
of etiologic factors: genetic and acquired (infectious, nutritional, chemical, physical, etc).
Detailed discussion will be given in subsequent topics. The etiology is followed by

2. Pathogenesis
Pathogenesis means the mechanism through which the cause operates to produce the
pathological and clinical manifestations. The pathogenetic mechanisms could take place in
the latent or incubation period. Pathogenesis leads to morphologic changes.

3. Morphologic changes
The morphologic changes refer to the structural alterations in cells or tissues that occur
following the pathogenetic mechanisms. The structural changes in the organ can be seen
with the naked eye or they may only be seen under the microscope. Those changes that
can be seen with the naked eye are called gross morphologic changes & those that are
seen under the microscope are called microscopic changes. Both the gross & the
microscopic morphologic changes may only be seen in that disease, i.e. they may be
specific to that disease. Therefore, such morphologic changes can be used by the
pathologist to identify (i.e. to diagnose) the disease. In addition, the morphologic changes
will lead to functional alteration & to the clinical signs & symptoms of the disease.

4. Functional derangements and clinical significance
The morphologic changes in the organ influence the normal function of the organ. By doing
so, they determine the clinical features (symptoms and signs), course, and prognosis of the

In summary, pathology studies:-

Etiology Pathogenesis Morphologic changes Clinical features & Prognosis of all

Understanding of the above core aspects of disease (i.e. understanding pathology) will help
one to understand how the clinical features of different diseases occur & how their
treatments work. This understanding will, in turn, enable health care workers to handle &
help their patients in a better & scientific way. It is for these reasons that the health science
student should study pathology. In addition, the pathologist can use the morphologic
changes seen in diseases to diagnose different diseases. There are different diagnostic
modalities used in pathology. Most of these diagnostic techniques are based on
morphologic changes.

III. Diagnostic techniques used in pathology

The pathologist uses the following techniques to the diagnose diseases:
a. Histopathology
b. Cytopathology
c. Hematopathology
d. Immunohistochemistry
e. Microbiological examination
f. Biochemical examination
g. Cytogenetics
h. Molecular techniques
i. Autopsy

A. Histopathological techniques

Histopathological examination studies tissues under the microscope. During this study, the
pathologist looks for abnormal structures in the tissue.

Tissues for histopathological examination are obtained by biopsy. Biopsy is a tissue sample
from a living person to identify the disease. Biopsy can be either incisional or excisional.

Once the tissue is removed from the patient, it has to be immediately fixed by putting it into
adequate amount of 10% Formaldehyde (10% formalin) before sending it to the pathologist.
The purpose of fixation is:

1. to prevent autolysis and bacterial decomposition and putrefaction
2. to coagulate the tissue to prevent loss of easily diffusible substances
3. to fortify the tissue against the deleterious effects of the various stages in the
preparation of sections and tissue processing.
4. to leave the tissues in a condition which facilitates differential staining with dyes
and other reagents.

Once the tissue arrives at the pathology department, the pathologist will exam it
macroscopically (i.e. naked-eye examination of tissues).

Then the tissue is processed to make it ready for microscopic examination. The whole
purpose of the tissue processing is to prepare a very thin tissue (i.e. five to seven m or
one cell thick tissue) which can be clearly seen under the microscope. The tissue is
processed by putting it into different chemicals. It is then impregnated (embedded) in
paraffin, sectioned (cut) into thin slices, & is finally stained. The stains can be
Hematoxylin/Eosin stain or special stains such as PAS, Immunohistochemistry, etc...
The Hematoxylin/Eosin stain is usually abbreviated as H&E stain. The H&E stain is
routinely used. It gives the nucleus a blue color & the cytoplasm & the extracellular
matrix a pinkish color. Then the pathologist will look for abnormal structures in the tissue.
And based on this abnormal morphology he/she will make the diagnosis. Histopathology
is usually the gold standard for pathologic diagnosis.

B. Cytopathologic techniques

Cytopathology is the study of cells from various body sites to determine the cause or nature
of disease.

Applications of cytopathology:

The main applications of cytology include the following:

1. Screening for the early detection of asymptomatic cancer
For example, the examination of scrapings from cervix for early detection and prevention of
cervical cancer.

2. Diagnosis of symptomatic cancer
Cytopathology may be used alone or in conjunction with other modalities to diagnose tumors
revealed by physical or radiological examinations.

It can be used in the diagnosis of cysts, inflammatory conditions and infections of various

3. Surveillance of patients treated for cancer
For some types of cancers, cytology is the most feasible method of surveillance to detect
recurrence. The best example is periodic urine cytology to monitor the recurrence of cancer
of the urinary tract.

Advantages of cytologic examination

Compared to histopathologic technique it is cheap, takes less time and needs no anesthesia
to take specimens. Therefore, it is appropriate for developing countries with limited
resources like Ethiopia. In addition, it is complementary to histopathological examination.

Cytopathologic methods

There are different cytopathologic methods including:

1. Fine-needle aspiration cytology (FNAC)

In FNAC, cells are obtained by aspirating the diseased organ using a very thin needle under
negative pressure. Virtually any organ or tissue can be sampled by fine-needle aspiration.
The aspirated cells are then stained & are studied under the microscope. Superficial organs
(e.g. thyroid, breast, lymph nodes, skin and soft tissues) can be easily aspirated. Deep
organs, such as the lung, mediastinum, liver, pancreas, kidney, adrenal gland, and
retroperitoneum are aspirated with guidance by fluoroscopy, ultrasound or CT scan. FNAC
is cheap, fast, & accurate in diagnosing many diseases.

2. Exfoliative cytology

Refers to the examination of cells that are shed spontaneously into body fluids or secretions.
Examples include sputum, cerebrospinal fluid, urine, effusions in body cavities (pleura,
pericardium, peritoneum), nipple discharge and vaginal discharge.

3. Abrasive cytology

mucous membranes, and serous membranes). E.g. preparation of cervical smears with a
spatula or a small brush to detect cancer of the uterine cervix at early stages. Such cervical
smears, also called Pap smears, can significantly reduce the mortality from cervical cancer.
Cervical cancer is the most common cancer in Ethiopian women.

C. Hematological examination

This is a method by which abnormalities of the cells of the blood and their precursors in the
bone marrow are investigated to diagnose the different kinds of anemia & leukemia.

D. Immunohistochemistry

This is a method is used to detect a specific antigen in the tissue in order to identify the type
of disease.

E. Microbiological examination

This is a method by which body fluids, excised tissue, etc. are examined by microscopical,
cultural and serological techniques to identify micro-organisms responsible for many

F. Biochemical examination

This is a method by which the metabolic disturbances of disease are investigated by assay
of various normal and abnormal compounds in the blood, urine, etc.

G. Clinical genetics (cytogenetics),

This is a method in which inherited chromosomal abnormalities in the germ cells or acquired
chromosomal abnormalities in somatic cells are investigated using the techniques of
molecular biology.

H. Molecular techniques

Different molecular techniques such as fluorescent in situ hybridization, Southern blot, etc...
can be used to detect genetic diseases.

I. Autopsy

Autopsy is examination of the dead body to identify the cause of death. This can be for
forensic or clinical purposes.

The relative importance of each of the above disciplines to our understanding of disease
varies for different types of diseases. For example, in diabetes mellitus, biochemical
investigation provides the best means of diagnosis and is of greatest value in the control of
the disease. Whereas in the diagnosis of tumors, FNAC & histopathology contribute much.
However, for most diseases, diagnosis is based on a combination of pathological

IV. The causes of disease

Diseases can be caused by either environmental factors, genetic factors or a combination of
the two.

A. Environmental factors

Environmental causes of disease are many and are classified into:

1. Physical agents
2. Chemicals
3. Nutritional deficiencies & excesses
4. Infections & infestations
5. Immunological factors
6. Psychogenic factors

1. Physical agents
These include trauma, radiation, extremes of temperature, and electric power. These agents
apply excess physical energy, in any form, to the body.

2. Chemicals
With the use of an ever-increasing number of chemical agents such as drugs, in industrial
processes, and at home, chemically induced injury has become very common. Their effects
Some act in a general manner, for example cyanide is toxic to all cells.
Others act locally at the site of application, for example strong acids and caustics.

Another group exhibit a predilection for certain organs, for example the effect of
paracetamol and alcohol on liver. Many toxic chemicals are metabolized in liver and
excreted in kidney, as a result, these organs are susceptible to chemical injury.

3. Nutritional deficiencies and excesses
Nutritional deficiencies may arise as a result of poor supply, interference with absorption,
inefficient transport within the body, or defective utilization. It may take the form of deficiency
either of major classes of food, usually protein and energy, or vitamins or elements essential
for specific metabolic processes, e.g. iron for haemoglobin production. Often, the
deficiencies are multiple and complex.

On the other hand, dietary excess plays an important role in diseases in Western countries.
Obesity has become increasingly common, with its attendant dangers of type 2 diabetes,
high blood pressure and heart disease.

4. Infections and infestations
Viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and metazoa all cause diseases. They may do so by
causing cell destruction directly as in virus infections (for example poliomyelitis) or protozoal
infections (for example malaria). However, in others the damage is done by toxins
elaborated by the infecting agent as in diphtheria and tetanus. Like chemicals, they may
have a general effect or they may show a predilection for certain tissues.

5. Immunological factors
The immune process is essential for protection against micro-organisms and parasites.
However, the immune system can be abnormal which can lead to diseases. The
abnormalities of the immune system include:

A. Hypersensitivity reaction
This is exaggerated immune response to an antigen. For example, bronchial
asthma can occur due to exaggerated immune response to the harmless pollen.

B. Immunodeficiency
This is due to deficiency of a component of the immune system which leads to
increased susceptibility to different diseases. An example is AIDS.

C. Autoimmunity
This is an abnormal (exaggerated) immune reaction against the self antigens of
the host. Therefore, autoimmunity is a hypersensitivity reaction against the self
antigens. For example, type 1 diabetes mellitus is caused by autoimmune
destruction of the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans of the pancreas.

6. Psychogenic factors
The mental stresses imposed by conditions of life, particularly in technologically advanced
communities, are probably contributory factors in some groups of diseases.

B. Genetic Factors

These are hereditary factors that are inherited genetically from parents. Detailed discussion
will be done on this topic in a subsequent chapter.

V. Course of disease

The course of disease is shown with a simplified diagram as follows.

Exposure Biological onset Clinical onset Permanent damage Death

Latency period

The course of a disease in the absence of any intervention is called the natural history of the
disease. The different stages in the natural history of disease include:
a) Exposure to various risk factors (causative agents)
b) Latency, period between exposure and biological onset of disease
c) Biological onset of disease; this marks the initiation of the disease process, however,
without any sign or symptom. Following biological onset of disease, it may remain
asymptomatic or subclinical (i.e. without any clinical manifestations), or may lead to
overt clinical disease.
d) Incubation (induction) period refers to variable period of time without any obvious signs
or symptoms from the time of exposure.

e) The clinical onset of the disease, when the signs and symptoms of the disease
become apparent. The expression of the disease may be variable in severity or in
terms of range of manifestations.
f) The onset of permanent damage, and
g) Death

Natural recovery, i.e. recovery without any intervention, can occur at any stage in the
progression of the disease.

VI. Outcome and consequences of disease

Following clinical onset, disease may follow any of the following trends:

a) Resolution can occur leaving no sequelae,
b) The disease can settle down, but sequelae are left, or
c) It may result in death.

VII. Clinical & biologic death

Clinical death

Clinical death is the reversible transmission between life and biologic death. Clinical death is
defined as the period of respiratory, circulatory and brain arrest during which initiation of
resuscitation can lead to recovery.

Clinical death begins with either the last agonal inhalation or the last cardiac contraction.
Signs indicating clinical death are
The patient is without pulse or blood pressure and is completely unresponsive to the
most painful stimulus.
The pupils are widely dilated
Some reflex reactions to external stimulation are preserved. For example, during
intubations, respiration may be restored in response to stimulation of the receptors of
the superior laryngeal nerve, the nucleus of which is located in the medulla
oblongata near the respiratory center.
Recovery can occur with resuscitation.

Biological Death

Biological death (sure sign of death), which sets in after clinical death, is an irreversible state
of cellular destruction. It manifests with irreversible cessation of circulatory and respiratory
functions, or irreversible cessation of all functions of the entire brain, including brain stem.
However, one should notice that there are internationally accepted criteria to diagnose
biological death.

VIII. Exercises

1. What is pathology? What core aspects of disease does it study?
2. Why should you study pathology?
3. What is pathogenesis?
4. What are the diagnostic modalities used by the pathologist?
5. What are the purposes of tissue fixation?
6. Describe the course of disease.

1. Emanuel Rubin, and John L. Farber, Essential Pathology, Philadelphia, 1990
2. William Boyd; Textbook of Pathology, structure and Function in disease, Philadelphia,
edition, 1987
3. James E. Pointer; Alan B. Fletcher; Basic life support, California, 1986
4. F.B. Walter and M.S Israel; General Pathology, Churchill Livingston Edinburgh and
London, 4
edition, 1974
5. Macfarlane, Reid, callander, Illustrated Pathology, Churchill Livingstone, 5
6. Cotran RS, Kumar V, Collins T.Robins pathologic basis of diseases. Philadelphia, J.B.
Saunders Company. 6th edition 1999
7. Muirs Textbook of Pathology 15

I. Learning objectives

At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:

1. Define hyperplasia, hypertrophy, atrophy, & Metaplasia & list some of their
2. Know the differences between reversible & irreversible forms of cell injury.
3. Describe the mechanisms of necrosis.
4. Describe the various types of necrosis & know some of their causes.

II. Introduction

Cell injury underlies all diseases. So to understand diseases one, has to start by knowing
what cell injury is. When a cell is exposed to an injurious agent (i.e. the causes of diseases
discussed in chapter one), the possible outcomes are:

1. The cell may adapt to the situation or
2. They cell may acquire a reversible injury or
3. The cell may obtain an irreversible injury & may die. The cell may die via
one of two ways: either by necrosis or by apoptosis.
Which of these outcomes occur depends on both the injurious agent & on cellular factors. In
other words, the result depends on the type, severity, & duration of the injury & on the type
of the cell.
This chapter covers the types of cellular adaptation, reversible cell injury, & cell death in that

III. Types of cellular adaptation

The types of cellular adaptation include hypertrophy, atrophy, hyperplasia, & metaplasia.

A. Hypertrophy

Hypertrophy is increase in the size of cells. Increased workload leads to increased
protein synthesis & increased size & number of intracellular organelles which, in turn,
leads to increased cell size. The increased cell size leads to increased size of the
Examples: the enlargement of the left ventricle in hypertensive heart disease & the
increase in skeletal muscle during sternous exercise.

B. Hyperplasia

Hyperplasia is an increase in the number of cells. It can lead to an increase in the size
of the organ. It is usually caused by hormonal stimulation. It can be physiological as in
enlargement of the breast during pregnancy or it can pathological as in endometrial

C. Atrophy

Atrophy is a decrease in the size of a cell. This can lead to decreased size of the
organ. The atrophic cell shows autophagic vacuoles which contain cellular debris from
degraded organelles.
Atrophy can be caused by:
1. Disuse
2. Undernutrition
3. Decreased endocrine stimulation
4. Denervation
5. Old age

D. Metaplasia

Metaplasia is the replacement of one differentiated tissue by another differentiated
tissue. There are different types of metaplasia. Examples include:

1. Squamous metaplasia

This is replacement of another type of epithelium by squamous epithelium. For
example, the columnar epithelium of the bronchus can be replaced by squamous
epithelium in cigarette smokers

2. Osseous metaplasia

This replacement of a connective tissue by bone, for example at sites of injury.

IV. Reversible cellular changes & accumulations

Even though there are many different kinds of reversible cellular changes & accumulations,
here we will only mention fatty change & accumulation of pigments.

1. Fatty change

This is accumulation of triglycerides inside parenchymal cells. It is caused by an imbalance
between the uptake, utilization, & secretion of fat. Fatty change is usually seen in the liver,
heart, or kidney. Fatty liver may be caused by alcohol, diabetes mellitus, malnutrition,
obesity, & poisonings. These etiologies cause accumulation of fat in the hepatocytes by the
following mechanisms:
a. Increased uptake of triglycerides into the parenchymal cells.
b. Decreased use of fat by cells.
c. Overproduction of fat in cells.
d. Decreased secretion of fat from the cells.

2. The accumulations of pigments

Pigments can be exogenous or endogenous. Endogenous pigments include melanin,
bilirubin, hemosiderin, & lipofuscin. Exogenous pigments include carbon. These pigments
can accumulate inside cells in different situations.

a. Melanin

Melanin is a brownish-black pigment produced by the melanocytes found in the skin.
Increased melanin pigmentation is caused by suntanning & certain diseases e.g.
nevus, or malignant melanoma. Decreased melanin pigmentation is seen in albinism &

b. Bilirubin

Bilirubin is a yellowish pigment, mainly produced during the degradation of
hemoglobin. Excess accumulation of bilirubin causes yellowish discoloration of the
sclerae, mucosae, & internal organs. Such a yellowish discoloration is called jaundice.

Jaundice is most often caused by

1. Hemolytic anemia
Hemolytic anemia is characterized by increased destruction of red blood cells.

2. Biliary obstruction

This is obstruction of intrahepatic or extrahepatic bile ducts. It can be caused by

3. Hepatocellular disease
This is associated with failure of conjugation of bilirubin.

C. Hemosiderin
Hemosiderin is an iron-containing pigment derived from ferritin. It appears in tissues
as golden brown amorphous aggregates & is identified by its staining reaction (blue

color) with the Prussian blue dye. Hemosiderin exists normally in small amounts
within tissue macrophages of the bone marrow, liver, & spleen as physiologic iron
stores. It accumulates in tissues in excess amounts in certain diseases.This excess
accumulation is divided into 2 types:

1. Hemosiderosis
When accumulation of hemosiderin is primarily within tissue macrophages & is
not associated with tissue damage, it is called hemosiderosis.

2. Hemochromatosis
When there is more extensive accumulation of hemosiderin, often within
parenchymal cells, which leads to tissue damage, scarring & organ dysfunction, it
is called hemochromatosis.

V. Cell death

Cells can die via one of the following two ways:
1. Necrosis
2. Apoptosis

1. Necrosis

In necrosis, excess fluid enters the cell, swells it, & ruptures its membrane which kills it. After
the cell has died, intracellular degradative reactions occur within a living organism. Necrosis
does not occur in dead organisms. In dead organisms, autolysis & heterolysis take place.

Necrosis occurs by the following mechanisms:

A. Hypoxia
B. Free radical-induced cell injury
C. Cell membrane damage
D. Increased intracellular calcium level

A. Hypoxia

Hypoxia is decreased oxygen supply to tissues. It can be caused by:

1. Ischemia
Ischemia is decreased blood flow to or from an organ. Ischemia can be caused by
obstruction of arterial blood flow the most common cause, or by decreased perfusion
of tissues by oxygen-carrying blood as occurs in cardiac failure, hypotension, & shock.

2. Anemia
Anemia is a reduction in the number of oxygen-carrying red blood cells.

3. Carbon monoxide poisoning
CO decreases the oxygen-capacity of red blood cells by chemical alteration of

4. Poor oxygenation of blood due to pulmonary disease.
The cell injury that results following hypoxia can be divided into early & late stages:

1. Early (reversible) stages of hypoxic cell injury
At this stage, hypoxia results in decreased oxidative phosphorylation & ATP
synthesis. Decreased ATP leads to:

a. Failure of the cell membrane Na K pump, which leads to increased
intracellular Na & water, which cause cellular & organelle swelling. Cellular
swelling (hydropic change) is characterized by the presence of large vacuoles
in the cytoplasm. The endoplasmic reticulum also swells. The mitochondria
show a low amplitude swelling. All of the above changes are reversible if the
hypoxia is corrected.
b. Disaggregation of ribosomes & failure of protein synthesis.

2. Late (irreversible) stages of hypoxic cell injury.
This is caused by severe or prolonged injury. It is caused by massive calcium
influx & very low pH, which lead to activation of enzymes, which damage the
cell membrane& organelle membranes. Irreversible damage to the
mitochondria, cell membranes, & the nucleus mark the point of no return for
the cell, that is after this stage, the cell is destined to die.

Release of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), creatine phosphokinase(CPK),
& lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) into the blood is an important indicator of
irreversible injury to heart muscle following myocardial infarction.

B. Free radical-induced injury
Free radical is any molecule with a single unpaired electron in the outer orbital.
Examples include superoxide & the hydroxyl radicals. Free radicals are formed by
normal metabolism, oxygen toxicity, ionizing radiation, & drugs & chemicals, &
reperfusion injury. They are degraded by spontaneous decay, intracellular enzymes
such as glutathione peroxidase, catalase, or superoxide dismutase, & endogenous
substances such as ceruloplasmin or transferrin. When the production of free radicals
exceeds their degradation, the excess free radicals cause membrane pump damage,
ATP depletion, & DNA damage. These can cause cell injury & cell death.

a. Cell membrane damage
Direct cell membrane damage as in extremes of temprature, toxins, or viruses, or
indirect cell membrane damage as in the case of hypoxia can lead to cell death
by disrupting the homeostasis of the cell.

b. Increased intracellular calcium level
Increased intracellular calcium level is a common pathway via which different
causes of cell injury operate. For example, the cell membrane damage leads to
increased intracellular calcium level. The increased cytosolic calcium, in turn,
activates enzymes in the presence of low pH. The activated enzymes will
degrade the cellular organelles.

Types of necrosis

The types of necrosis include:

1. Coagulative necrosis
2. Liquefactive necrosis
3. Fat necrosis
4. Caseous necrosis
5. Gangrenous necrosis

1. Coagulative necrosis

Cogulative necrosis most often results from sudden interruption of blood supply to an organ,
especially to the heart. It is, in early stages, characterized by general preservation of tissue
architecture. It is marked by the following nuclear changes: Pyknosis (which is chromatin
clumping & shrinking with increased basophilia), karyorrhexis (fragmentation of chromatin),
& karyolysis (fading of the chromatin material).

2. Liquefactive necrosis

Liquefactive necrosis is characterized by digestion of tissue. It shows softening &
liquefaction of tissue. It characteristically results from ischemic injury to the CNS. It also
occurs in suppurative infections characterized by formation of pus.

3. Fat necrosis

Fat necrosis can be caused by trauma to tissue with high fat content, such as the breast or it
can also be caused by acute hemorrhagic pancreatitis in which pancreatic enzymes diffuse
into the inflamed pancreatic tissue & digest it. The fatty acids released from the digestion
form calcium salts (soap formation or dystrophic calcification). In addition, the elastase
enzyme digests the blood vessels & cause the hemorrhage inside the pancreas, hence the
name hemorrhagic pancreatitis.

4. Caseous necrosis

Caseous necrosis has a cheese-like (caseous, white) appearance to the naked eye. And it
appears as an amorphous eosinophilic material on microscopic examination. Caseous
necrosis is typical of tuberculosis.

5. Gangrenous necrosis

This is due to vascular occlusion & most often affects the lower extremities & the bowel. It is
called wet gangrene if it is complicated by bacterial infection which leads to superimposed
liquefactive necrosis. Whereas it is called dry gangrene if there is only coagulative necrosis
without liquefactive necrosis.

Necrosis can be followed by release of intracellular enzymes into the blood, inflammation or
dystrophic calcification. Inflammation will be discussed in the next chapter.

2. Apoptosis

Apoptosis is the death of single cells within clusters of other cells. (Note that necrosis
causes the death of clusters of cells.) In apoptosis, the cell shows shrinkage & increased
acidophilic staining of the cell. This is followed by fragmentation of the cells. These
fragments are called apoptotic bodies. Apoptosis usually occurs as a physiologic process for
removal of cells during embryogenesis, menstruation, etc It can also be seen in
pathological conditions caused by mild injurious agents.

Apoptosis is not followed by inflammation or calcification. The above mentioned features
distinguish apoptosis from necrosis.

VI. Pathologic calcification

Pathologic calcification is divided into 2 types:

1. Metastatic calcification

This is caused by hypercalcemia, resulting from hyperparathyroidism, milk-alkali syndrome,
sarcoidosis etc

2. Dystrophic calcification

This occurs in previously damaged tissue, such as areas of old trauma, tuberculous lesions,
scarred heart valves, & atherosclerotic lesions.
Unlike metastatic calcification, it is not caused by hypercalcemia. Typically, the serum
calcium level is normal.

VII. Exercises
1. Why should you study cell injury?
2. Compare & contrast the various types of cellular adaptation.
3. Describe the various mechanisms of necrosis.
4. Mention some of the causes of each of the various types of necrosis.
5. Compare & contrast necrosis & apoptosis.
6. Contrat metastatic & dystrophic calcification.

At the end of the chapter the student is expected to
1. Know the causes of inflammation
2. Understand the process of inflammations
3. Comprehend the etiopathogeneses of granulomatous inflammations
4. Contrast the differences between acute and chronic inflammations

Definition: Inflammation is a local response (reaction) of living vasculaized tissues to
endogenous and exogenous stimuli. The term is derived from the Latin "inflammare"
meaning to burn. Inflammation is fundamentally destined to localize and eliminate the
causative agent and to limit tissue injury.

Thus, inflammation is a physiologic (protective) response to injury, an observation made by
Sir John Hunter in 1794 concluded: inflammation is itself not to be considered as a disease
but as a salutary operation consequent either to some violence or to some diseases.

Causes of inflammation are apparently causes of diseases such as

physical agents - mechanical injuries, alteration in temperatures and pressure,
radiation injuries.
chemical agents- including the ever increasing lists of drugs and toxins.
biologic agents (infectious)- bacteria,viruses,fungi, parasites
immunologic disorders- hypersensitivity reactions, autoimmunity,
immunodeficiency states etc
genetic/metabolic disorders- examples gout, diabetes mellitus etc

The nomenclatures of inflammatory lesion are usually indicated by the suffix 'itis'.
Thus, inflammation of the appendix is called appendicitis and that of meninges as
meningitis, etc. However, like any rule, it has its own exceptions examples
pneumonia, typhoid fever, etc.

Inflammation is classified crudely based on duration of the lesion and histologic
appearances into acute and chronic inflammation.

Acute inflammation is an immediate and early response to an injurious agent and it is
relatively of short duration, lasting for minutes, several hours or few days.
It is characterized by exudation of fluids and plasma proteins and the emigration of
predominantly neutrophilic leucocytes to the site of injury.

The five cardinal signs of acute inflammation are

Redness (rubor) which is due to dilation of small blood vessels within damaged
tissue as it occurs in cellulitis.
Heat (calor) which results from increased blood flow (hyperemia) due to regional
vascular dilation
Swelling (tumor) which is due to accumulation of fluid in the extravascular space
which, in turn, is due to increased vascular permeability.
Pain (dolor), which partly results from the stretching & destruction of tissues due to
inflammatory edema and in part from pus under pressure in as abscess cavity.
Some chemicals of acute inflammation, including bradykinins, prostaglandins and
serotonin are also known to induce pain.
Loss of function: The inflammed area is inhibited by pain while severe swelling
may also physically immobilize the tissue.

Events of acute inflammation:

Acute inflammation is categorized into an early vascular and a late cellular responses.

1) The Vascular response has the following steps:

a) Immediate (momentary) vasoconstriction in seconds due to neurogenic or chemical
b) Vasodilatation of arterioles and venules resulting in increased blood flow.
c) After the phase of increased blood flow there is a slowing of blood flow & stasis due
to increased vascular permeability that is most remarkably seen in the post-capillary
venules. The increased vascular permeability oozes protein-rich fluid into extra-
vascular tissues. Due to this, the already dilated blood vessels are now packed with
red blood cells resulting in stasis. The protein-rich fluid which is now found in the
extravascular space is called exudate. The presence of the exudates clinically
appears as swelling. Chemical mediators mediate the vascular events of acute

2) Cellular response

The cellular response has the following stages:
A. Migration, rolling, pavementing, & adhesion of leukocytes
B. Transmigration of leukocytes
C. Chemotaxis
D. Phagocytosis

Normally blood cells particularly erythrocytes in venules are confined to the central
(axial) zone and plasma assumes the peripheral zone. As a result of increased
vascular permeability (See vascular events above), more and more neutrophils
accumulate along the endothelial surfaces (peripheral zone).

A) Migration, rolling, pavementing, and adhesion of leukocytes
Margination is a peripheral positioning of white cells along the endothelial cells.
Subsequently, rows of leukocytes tumble slowly along the endothelium in a process
known as rolling
In time, the endothelium can be virtually lined by white cells. This appearance is
called pavementing
Thereafter, the binding of leukocytes with endothelial cells is facilitated by cell
adhesion molecules such as selectins, immunoglobulins, integrins, etc which result
in adhesion of leukocytes with the endothelium.

B). Transmigration of leukocytes
Leukocytes escape from venules and small veins but only occasionally from
capillaries. The movement of leukocytes by extending pseudopodia through the
vascular wall occurs by a process called diapedesis.
The most important mechanism of leukocyte emigration is via widening of inter-
endothelial junctions after endothelial cells contractions. The basement membrane
is disrupted and resealed thereafter immediately.

C). Chemotaxis:
A unidirectional attraction of leukocytes from vascular channels towards the site of
inflammation within the tissue space guided by chemical gradients (including
bacteria and cellular debris) is called chemotaxis.
The most important chemotactic factors for neutrophils are components of the
complement system (C5a), bacterial and mitochondrial products of arachidonic
acid metabolism such as leukotriene B4 and cytokines (IL-8). All granulocytes,
monocytes and to lesser extent lymphocytes respond to chemotactic stimuli.
How do leukocytes "see" or "smell" the chemotactic agent? This is because
receptors on cell membrane of the leukocytes react with the chemoattractants
resulting in the activation of phospholipase C that ultimately leads to release of
cytocolic calcium ions and these ions trigger cell movement towards the stimulus.

D) Phagocytosis
Phagocytosis is the process of engulfment and internalization by specialized cells
of particulate material, which includes invading microorganisms, damaged cells,
and tissue debris.
These phagocytic cells include polymorphonuclear leukocytes (particularly
neutrophiles), monocytes and tissue macrophages.

Phagocytosis involves three distinct but interrelated steps.

1). Recognition and attachment of the particle to be ingested by the leukocytes:
Phagocytosis is enhanced if the material to be phagocytosed is coated with certain
plasma proteins called opsonins. These opsonins promote the adhesion between the
particulate material and the phagocytes cell membrane. The three major opsonins
are: the Fc fragment of the immunoglobulin, components of the complement system
C3b and C3bi, and the carbohydrate-binding proteins lectins.
Thus, IgG binds to receptors for the Fc piece of the immunoglobulin (FcR) whereas
3cb and 3bi are ligands for complement receptors CR1 and CR2 respectively.

2). Engulfment: During engulfment, extension of the cytoplasm (pseudopods) flow around
the object to be engulfed, eventually resulting in complete enclosure of the particle
within the phagosome created by the cytoplasmic membrane of the phagocytic cell.
formed and the engulfed particle is exposed to the degradative lysosomal enzymes.

3) Killing or degradation
The ultimate step in phagocytosis of bacteria is killing and degradation. There are two
forms of bacterial killing

a). Oxygen-independent mechanism:
This is mediate by some of the constituents of the primary and secondary
granules of polymorphonuclear leukocytes. These include:
Bactericidal permeability increasing protein (BPI)
Major basic protein

It is probable that bacterial killing by lysosomal enzymes is inefficient and relatively
unimportant compared with the oxygen dependent mechanisms. The lysosomal
enzymes are, however, essential for the degradation of dead organisms within

b) Oxygen-dependent mechanism:

There are two types of oxygen- dependent killing mechanisms

i) Non-myeloperoxidase dependent

The oxygen - dependent killing of microorganisms is due to formation of reactive
oxygen species such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), super oxide (O2) and hydroxyl
ion (HO-) and possibly single oxygen (1O2). These species have single unpaired
electrons in their outer orbits that react with molecules in cell membrane or nucleus
to cause damages. The destructive effects of H2O2 in the body are gauged by the
action of the glutathione peroxidase and catalase.

ii) Myloperoxidasedependent

The bactericidal activity of H2O2 involves the lysosomal enzyme
myeloperoxidase, which in the presence of halide ions converts H2O2 to
hypochlorous acid (HOCI). This H2O2 halide - myecloperoxidease system is
the most efficient bactericidal system in neutrophils. A similar mechanism is also
effective against fungi, viruses, protozoa and helminths.

Like the vascular events, the cellular events (i.e. the adhesion, the transmigration,
the chemotaxis, & the phagocytosis) are initiated or activated by chemical mediators.
Next, we will focus on the sources of these mediators.

IV. Chemical mediators of inflammation

Chemical mediators account for the events of inflammation. Inflammation has the following

Cell injury Chemical mediators Acute inflammation (i.e. the vascular & cellular events).

Sources of mediators:

a) Plasma-derived mediators:

i) Complement activation
increases vascular permeability (C3a,C5a)
activates chemotaxis (C5a)
opsoninization (C3b,C3bi)

ii) Factor XII (Hegman factor) activation
Its activation results in recruitment of four systems: the kinin, the clotting, the
fibrinolytic and the compliment systems.

b) Cell-derived chemical mediatos:

Cell-derived chemical mediators include:

Cellular mediators Cells of origin Functions
Histamine Mast cells, basophiles, Vascular leakage & platelets
Serotonine Platelets Vascular leakage
Lysosomal enzymes Neutrophiles, Bacterial & tissue destruction
Prostaglandines All leukocytes Vasodilatation, pain, fever
Leukotriens All leukocytes LB4
Chemoattractant LC4, LCD4, & LE4 Broncho and vasoconstriction
Platlete activating factor All leukocytes Bronchoconstriction and WBC priming
Activated oxygen species All leukocytes Endothelial and tissue damage
Nitric oxide Macrophages Leukocyte activation
Cytokines Lymphocytes, macrophages Leukocyte activation

Most mediators perform their biologic activities by initially binding to specific
receptors on target cells. Once activated and released from the cells, most of these
mediators are short lived. Most mediators have the potential to cause harmful

V. Morphology of acute inflammation

Characteristically, the acute inflammatory response involves production of exudates.
An exudate is an edema fluid with high protein concentration, which frequently
contains inflammatory cells.
A transudate is simply a non-inflammatory edema caused by cardiac, renal,
undernutritional, & other disorders.

The differences between an exudate and a transudate are

Cause: Acute inflammation Non-inflammatory disorders
Appearance Colored, turbid, hemorrhagic Clear, translucent or pale

Specific gravity: Greater than or equal to 1.020 Much less

Spontaneous coagulability: Yes No

Protein content: >3gm %
Cells: Abundant WBC, RBC, Only few mesothelial cells
& Cell debris usually present
Bacteria: Present Absent.

There are different morphologic types of acute inflammation:

1) Serous inflammation

This is characterized by an outpouring of a thin fluid that is derived from either the
blood serum or secretion of mesothelial cells lining the peritoneal, pleural, and
pericardial cavities.
It resolves without reactions

2) Fibrinous inflammation

More severe injuries result in greater vascular permeability that ultimately leads to
exudation of larger molecules such as fibrinogens through the vascular barrier.
Fibrinous exudate is characteristic of inflammation in serous body cavities such as
the pericardium (butter and bread appearance) and pleura.

Course of fibrinous inflammation include:

Resolution by fibrinolysis
Scar formation between perietal and visceral surfaces i.e. the exudates get
Fibrous strand formation that bridges the pericardial space.

3) Suppurative (Purulent) inflammation

This type of inflammation is characterized by the production of a large amount of pus.
Pus is a thick creamy liquid, yellowish or blood stained in colour and composed of
A large number of living or dead leukocytes (pus cells)
Necrotic tissue debris
Living and dead bacteria
Edema fluid
There are two types of suppurative inflammation:

A) Abscess formation:
An abscess is a circumscribed accumulation of pus in a living tissue. It is
encapsulated by a so-called pyogenic membrane, which consists of layers of fibrin,
inflammatory cells and granulation tissue.

B) Acute diffuse (phlegmonous) inflammation

This is characterized by diffuse spread of the exudate through tissue spaces. It is
caused by virulent bacteria (eg. streptococci) without either localization or marked
pus formation. Example: Cellulitis (in palmar spaces).

4) Catarrhal inflammation

This is a mild and superficial inflammation of the mucous membrane. It is
commonly seen in the upper respiratory tract following viral infections where
mucous secreting glands are present in large numbers, eg. Rhinitis.

5) Pseudomembranous inflammation

The basic elements of pseudomembranous inflammation are extensive confluent
necrosis of the surface epithelium of an inflamed mucosa and severe acute
inflammation of the underlying tissues. The fibrinogens in the inflamed tissue
coagulate within the necrotic epithelium. And the fibrinogen, the necrotic
epithelium, the neutrophilic polymorphs, red blood cells, bacteria and tissue debris
form a false (pseudo) membrane which forms a white or colored layer over the
surface of inflamed mucosa.
Pseudomembranous inflammation is exemplified by Dipthetric infection of the
pharynx or larynx and Clostridium difficille infection in the large bowel following
certain antibiotic use.

VI. Effects of acute inflammation:

A. Beneficial effects

Dilution of toxins: The concentration of chemical and bacterial toxins at the site of
inflammation is reduced by dilution in the exudate and its removal from the site by
the flow of exudates from the venules through the tissue to the lymphatics.
Protective antibodies: Exudation results in the presence of plasma proteins
including antibodies at the site of inflammation. Thus, antibodies directed against the
causative organisms will react and promote microbial destruction by phagocytosis or
complement-mediated cell lysis.
Fibrin formation: This prevents bacterial spread and enhances phagocytosis by
Plasma mediator systems provisions: The complement, coagulation, fibrinolytic, &
kinin systems are provided to the area of injury by the process of inflammation.

Cell nutrition: The flow of inflammatory exudates brings with it glucose, oxygen and
other nutrients to meet the metabolic requirements of the greatly increased number
of cells. It also removes their solute waste products via lymphatic channels.
Promotion of immunity: Micro-organisms and their toxins are carried by the
exudates, either free or in phagocytes, along the lymphaics to local lymph nodes
where they stimulate an immune response with the generation of antibodies and
cellular immune mechanisms of defence.

B. Harmful effects

Tissue destruction Inflammation may result in tissue necrosis and the tissue
necrosis may, in turn, incite inflammation.
Swelling: The swelling caused by inflammation may have serious mechanical
effects at certain locations. Examples include acute epiglottitis with interference in
breathing; Acute meningitis and encephalitis with effects of increased intracranial
Inappropriate response: The inflammatory seen in hypersensitivity reactions is
inappropriate (i.e. exaggerated).

VII. Course of acute inflammation
Acute inflammation may end up in:

Resolution: i.e. complete restitution of normal structure and function of the tissue,
eg. lobar pneumonia.
Healing by fibrosis (scar formation).
Abscess formation {Surgical law states -Thou shallt ( you shold ) drain all
abscesses.} However, if it is left untouched, it may result in
- Sinus formation - when an abscess cavity makes contact with only one epithelial
- Fistula formation: when an abscess tract connects two epithelial surface.
Or very rarely to septicemia or
Pyemia with subsequent metastatic abscess in heart, kidney, brain etc.

Definition: Chronic inflammation can be defined as a prolonged inflammatory process
(weeks or months) where an active inflammation, tissue destruction and attempts at repair
are proceeding simultaneously.

Causes of chronic inflammation:

1. Persistent infections
Certain microorganisms associated with intracellular infection such as tuberculosis,
leprosy, certain fungi etc characteristically cause chronic inflammation.
These organisms are of low toxicity and evoke delayed hypersensitivity reactions.

2. Prolonged exposure to nondegradable but partially toxic substances either
endogenous lipid components which result in atherosclerosis or exogenous substances
such as silica, asbestos.

3. Progression from acute inflammation: Acute inflammation almost always progresses
to chronic inflammation following:

a. Persistent suppuration as a result of uncollapsed abscess cavities, foreign body
materials (dirt, cloth, wool, etc), sequesterum in osteomylitis, or a sinus/fistula from
chronic abscesses.

4. Autoimmuniy. Autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus
erythematosis are chronic inflammations from the outset.

Cells of chronic inflammation:

Monocytes and Macrophages are the prima Dona (primary cells) in chronic
inflammation. Macrophages arise from the common precursor cells in the bone
marrow, which give rise to blood monocytes. These cells are then diffusely scattered
in various parts of the body, in the liver (Kupffer cells), spleen, lymph nodes (sinus
histiocytes), lungs (alviolar macrophages), bone marrow, brain (microglia), skin

(Langerhans cells), etc. These cells constitute the mononuclear- phagocytic
Macrophages are scavenger cells of the body.

Other cells in chronic inflammation:

1. T-Lymphocytes are primarily involved in cellular immunity with lymphokine
production, and they are the key regulator and effector cells of the immune system.
2. B-lymphocytes and Plasma cells produce antibody directed either against
persistent antigen in the inflammatory site or against altered tissue components.
3. Mast cells and eosinophils appear predominantly in response to parasitic infestations
& allergic reactions.

Though neutrophils are hallmarks of acute inflammatory reactions, large numbers of
neutrophils may be seen in some forms of chronic inflammation, notably chronic
osteomylitis, actinomycosis, & choric lung diseases induced by smoking and other stimuli.
Thus, the overall differentiation points between acute and chronic inflammations include:

Characteristics Acute inflammation Chronic inflammation
Duration Short Relatively long
Pattern Stereotyped Varied
Predominant cell Neutrophils Macrophages,
Lymphocytes plasma cells
Tissue destruction Mild to moderate Marked
Fibrosis Absent Present
Inflammatory reaction Exudative Productive

Classification of chronic inflammation:

Chronic inflammation can be classified into the following two types based on histologic

1) Nonspecific chronic inflammation: This involves a diffuse accumulation of
macrophages and lymphocytes at site of injury that is usually productive with new fibrous
tissue formations. E.g. Chronic cholecystitis.

2) Specific inflammation (granulomatous inflammation):
Definition: Granulomatous inflammation is characterized by the presence of
granuloma. A granuloma is a microscopic aggregate of epithelioid cells. Epithelioid cell
is an activated macrophage, with a modified epithelial cell-like appearance (hence the
name epithelioid). The epitheloid cells can fuse with each other & form multinucleated
giant cells. So, even though, a granuloma is basically a collection of epithelioid cells, it
also usually contains multinucleated giant cell & is usually surrounded by a cuff of
lymphocytes and occasional plasma cells. There are two types of giant cells:
a. Foreign body-type giant cells which have irregularly scattered nuclei in presence
of indigestible materials.
b. Langhans giant cells in which the nuclei are arranged peripherally in a horse -shoe
pattern which is seen typically in tuberculosis, sarcoidosis etc
Giant cells are formed by fusion of macrophages perhaps by a concerted attempt of
two or more cells to engulf a single particle.

There are two types of granulomas, which differ in their pathogenesis.

A. Foreign body granuloma

These granulomas are initiated by inert foreign bodies such as talc, sutures (non-
absorbable), fibers, etc that are large enough to preclude phagocytosis by a single
macrophage and do not incite an immune response.

B. Immune granulomas

Antigen presenting cells (macrophages) engulf a poorly soluble inciting agent. Then, the
macrophage processes and presents part of the antigen (in association with MHC type2
molecules) to CD4+T helper 1 cells which become activated. The activated CD4+ T-cells
produce cytokines (IL-2 and interferon gamma).The IL-2 activates other CD4+T helper
cells and perpetuates the response while IFN- is important in transforming
macrophages into epitheloid cells and multinucleated giant cells. The cytokines have
been implicated not only in the formation but also in the maintenance of granuloma.

Macrophage inhibitory factor helps to localize activated macrophages and epitheloid

Major causes of granulomatious inflammation include:

a) Bacterial: Tuberculosis, Leprosy, Syphilis, Cat scratch disease, Yersiniosis
b) Fungal: Histoplasmosis, Cryptococcosis, Coccidioidomycosis, Blastomycosis
c) Helminthic: Schistosomiasis
d) Protozoal: Leishmaniasis, Toxoplasmosis
e) Chlamydia: Lymphogranuloma venerum
f) Inorganic material: Berrylliosis
g) Idiopathic: Acidosis, Cohns disease, Primary biliary cirrhosis

The systemic effects of inflammation include:
a. Fever
b. Endocrine & metabolic responses
c. Autonomic responses
d. Behavioral responses
e. Leukocytosis
f. Leukopenia
g. Weight loss

a. Fever

Fever is the most important systemic manifestation of inflammation. It is coordinated by
the hypothalamus & by cytokines (IL -1, IL-6, TNF-) rekeased from macrophages
and other cells.

b. Endocrine and metabolic responses include:

- The liver secrets acute phase proteins such as:
C-reactive proteins
Serum Amyloid A
Complement and coagulation proteins
- Glucocorticoids (increased)
- Vasopressin (decreased)

c. Autonomic responses include:

- Redirection of blood flow from the cutaneous to the deep vascular bed.
- Pulse rate and blood pressure (increased)
- Sweating (decreased)

d. Behavioral responses include:

- Rigor, chills, anoroxia, somnolence, and malaise.

e. Leucocytosis is also a common feature of inflammation, especially in bacterial
infections. Its usual count is 15,000 to 20,000 cells/mm3. Most bacterial infections
induce neutrophilia. Some viral infections such as infectious mononucleosis, & mumps
cause lymphocytosis. Parasitic infestations & allergic reactions such as bronchial
ashma & hay fever induce eosinophilia.

f. Leukopenia is also a feature of typhoid fever and some parasitic infections.

g. Weight loss is thought to be due to the action of IL-1 and TNF- which increase
catabolism in skeletal muscle, adipose tissue and the liver with resultant negative
nitrogen balance.

IX. Exercises

1. Discuss the pathopysiology of the cardinal sign of acute inflammation.
2. Enumerate the sequential steps in both the vascular and cellular responses of acute
3. Why is inflammation a largely protective response?
4. List the morphologic changes in acute inflammation.
5. Discuss the squelae of suppurative inflammation.
6. Enumerate the causes of chronic inflammation.
7. Define gramulomatous inflammation
8. Discuss the pathogenesis and morphologic changes of granulomatous inflammation
9. Compare & contrast acute and chronic inflammations.
10. Enumerate the systemic effects of inflammations.

Saunders Company. 6th edition 1999
2. Mac Sween RNM, Whaley K. Muirs Text book of pathology. London, Edward Arnold
edition 1992
3. Rubin-E, Farber-JC. Pathology Philadelphia, J.B. Lippincott Company 6
edition 1994
4. Dey NC, Dey TK. A Text book of Pathology Calcatta, Messers Allied agency 10

I. Learning objectives

Upon completing the chapter, students should be able to:

1. Describe the processes of healing.
2. Specify the patterns of wound healing.
3. List the factors that influence wound healing.
4. Discuss the complications of wound healing.
5. Understand fracture healing.

II. Definition of healing
The word healing, used in a pathological context, refers to the bodys replacement of
destroyed tissue by living tissue.

III. Processes of healing

The healing process involves two distinct processes:

- Regeneration, the replacement of lost tissue by tissues similar in type and

- Repair (healing by scaring), the replacement of lost tissue by granulation tissue which
matures to form scar tissue. Healing by fibrosis is inevitable when the surrounding
specialized cells do not possess the capacity to proliferate.

Tissue Inflammation Removal of dead tissue &
Damage injurious agent

Fibrous tissue Specialized tissue
(scarring) (Regeneration)

Figure 4.1 Processes of healing: Removal of dead tissue & injurious agent and replacement
occur simultaneously.

Whether healing takes place by regeneration or by repair (scarring) is determined partly by
the type of cells in the damaged organ & partly by the destruction or the intactness of the
stromal frame work of the organ. Hence, it is important to know the types of cells in the

Types of cells

Based on their proliferative capacity there are three types of cells.

1. Labile cells
These are cells which have a continuous turn over by programmed division of stem cells.
They are found in the surface epithelium of the gastrointestinal treat, urinary tract or the
skin. The cells of lymphoid and haemopoietic systems are further examples of labile cells.
The chances of regeneration are excellent.

2. Stable cells
Tissues which have such type of cells have normally a much lower level of replication and
there are few stem cells. However, the cells of such tissues can undergo rapid division in
response to injury. For example, mesenchymal cells such as smooth muscle cells,
fibroblasts, osteoblasts and endothelial cells are stable cells which can proliferate. Liver,

endocrine glands and renal tubular epithelium has also such type of cells which can
regenerate. Their chances of regeneration are good.

3. Permanent cells

These are non-dividing cells. If lost, permanent cells cannot be replaced, because they don
not have the capacity to proliferate. For example: adult neurons, striated muscle cells, and
cells of the lens.

Having been introduced to the types of cells, we can go back to the two types of healing
processes & elaborate them.

a. Healing by regeneration

Definition: Regeneration (generare=bring to life) is the renewal of a lost tissue in which the
lost cells are replaced by identical ones.

Regeneration involves two processes
1. Proliferation of surviving cells to replace lost tissue
2. Migration of surviving cells into the vacant space.

The capacity of a tissue for regeneration depends on its
1) proliferative ability,
2) degree of damage to stromal framework and
3) on the type and severity of the damage.

Tissues formed of labile and stable cells can regenerate provided that stromal framework
are intact.

b. Repair (Healing by connective tissue)

Definition:- Repair is the orderly process by which lost tissue is eventually replaced by a

A wound in which only the lining epithelium is affected heals exclusively by regeneration. In
contrast, wounds that extend through the basement membrane to the connective tissue, for
example, the dermis in the skin or the sub-mucosa in the gastrointestinal tract, lead to the

formation of granulation tissue and eventual scarring. Tissues containing terminally
differentiated (permanent) cells such as neurons and skeletal muscle cells can not heal by
regeneration. Rather the lost permanent cells are replaced by formation of granulation

In granulation-tissue formation, three phases may be observed.

1. Phase of inflammation

At this phase, inflammatory exudate containing polymorphs is seen in the area of tissue
injury. In addition, there is platelet aggregation and fibrin deposition.

2. Phase of demolition

The dead cells liberate their autolytic enzymes, and other enzymes (proteolytic) come from
disintegrating polymorphs. There is an associated macrophage infiltration. These cells
ingest particulate matter, either digesting or removing it.

3. Ingrowth of granulation tissue

This is characterized by proliferation of fibroblasts and an ingrowth of new blood vessels into
the area of injuty, with a variable number of inflammatory cells.

Fibroblasts actively synthesize and secrete extra-cellular matrix components, including
fibronectin, proteoglycans, and collagen types I and III. The fibronectin and proteoglycans
form the scaffolding for rebuilding of the matrix. Fibronectin binds to fibrin and acts as a
chemotactic factor for the recruitment of more fibroblasts and macrophages. The synthesis
of collagen by fibroblasts begins within 24 hours of the injury although its deposition in the
tissue is not apparent until 4 days. By day 5, collagen type III is the predominant matrix
protein being produced; but by day 7 to 8, type I is prominent, and it eventually becomes the
major collagen of mature scar tissue. This type I collagen is responsible for providing the
tensile strength of the matrix in a scar.

Coincident with fibroblast proliferation there is angiogenesis (neovascularization), a
proliferation and formation of new small blood vessels. Vascular proliferation starts 48 to 72
hours after injury and lasts for several days.

With further healing, there is an increase in extracellular constituents, mostly collagen, with a
decrease in the number of active fibroblasts and new vessels. Despite an increased
collagenase activity in the wound (responsible for removal of built collagen), collagen
accumulates at a steady rate, usually reaching a maximum 2 to 3 months after the injury.
The tensile strength of the wound continues to increase many months after the
collagen content has reached a maximum. As the collagen content of the wound
increases, many of the newly formed vessels disappear. This vascular involution which
takes place in a few weeks, dramatically transforms a richly vascularized tissue in to a pale,
avascular scar tissue.

Wound contraction

Wound contraction is a mechanical reduction in the size of the defect. The wound is reduced
approximately by 70-80% of its original size. Contraction results in much faster healing,
since only one-quarter to one-third of the amount of destroyed tissue has to be replaced. If
contraction is prevented, healing is slow and a large ugly scar is formed.

Causes of contraction
It is said to be due to contraction by myofibroblasts. Myofibroblasts have the features
intermediate between those of fibroblasts and smooth muscle cells. Two to three days after
the injury they migrate into the wound and their active contraction decrease the size of the

Following tissue injury, whether healing occurs by regeneration or scarring is determined by
the degree of tissue destruction, the capacity of the parenchymal cells to proliferate, and the
degree of destructon of stromal framework as illustrated in the diagram below (See Fig. 4.2).
In the above discussion, regeneration, repair, and contraction have been dealt with
separately. Yet they are not mutually exclusive processes. On the contrary, the three
processes almost invariably participate together in wound healing.

Acute inflammatory exudation

Stimulus promptly Stimulus not promptly
destroyed destroyed

Necrosis of cells

No or minimal Tissue of stable Tissue of
necrosis of cells or labile cells permanent cells

Exudate Exudate Framework Framework
Resolved organized intact destroyed

Restitution of
Normal structure
Mild heat injury

Figure 4.2 Diagram showing healing process following acute inflammatory injury.

Bacterial abscess
Myocardial infarction
Restitution of normal structure
Lobar pneumonia

IV. Molecular control of healing process

As seen above, healing involves an orderly sequence of events which includes regeneration
and migration of specialized cells, angiogenesis, proliferation of fibroblasts and related cells,
matrix protein synthesis and finally cessation of these processes.
These processes, at least in part, are mediated by a series of low molecular weight
polypeptides referred to as growth factors.
These growth factors have the capacity to stimulate cell division and proliferation. Some of
the factors, known to play a role in the healing process, are briefly discussed below.

Sources of Growth Factors:

Following injury, growth factors may be derived from a number of sources such as:

1. Platelets, activated after endothelial damage,
2. Damaged epithelial cells,
3. Circulating serum growth factors,
4. Macrophages, or
5. Lymphocytes recruited to the area of injury

The healing process ceases when lost tissue has been replaced. The mechanisms
regulating this process are not fully understood. TGF- acts as a growth inhibitor for both
epithelial and endothelial cells and regulates their regeneration.

The summary of molecular control of the healing process is illustrated with the diagram
shown below.

Damaged Blood Macrophages Lymphocytes
Epithelial cells platelets

Release of growth factors and cytokines

Specialized Fibroblast Angiogenesis
cell regeneration activation - new capillary
E.g. EGF E.g. TGF- formation
(Epidermal growth) (Transforming (angiogenic factors)
factor) growth factor-beta)

Fig. 4-3 Diagram showing sources of growth factors and their effect.

VI. Wound Healing

The two processes of healing, described above, can occur during healing of a diseased
organ or during healing of a wound. A wound can be accidental or surgical. Now, we will
discuss skin wound healing to demonstrate the two basic processes of healing mentioned

Healing of a wound demonstrates both epithelial regeneration (healing of the epidermis) and
repair by scarring (healing of the dermis).

There are two patterns of wound healing depending on the amount of tissue damage:
1. Healing by first intention (Primary union)
2. Healing by second intention

These two patterns are essentially the same process varying only in amount.
1. Healing by first intention (primary union)
The least complicated example of wound healing is the healing of a clean surgical incision
(Fig. 4-4, left). The wound edges are approximated by surgical sutures, and healing occurs
with a minimal loss of tissue. Such healing is referred to, surgically, as primary union or
healing by first intention. The incision causes the death of a limited number of epithelial
cells as well as of dermal adnexa and connective tissue cells; the incisional space is narrow
and immediately fills with clotted blood, containing fibrin and blood cells; dehydration of the
surface clot forms the well-known scab that covers the wound and seals it from the
environment almost at once.
clot. The epidermis at its cut edges thickens as a result of mitotic activity of basal cells and,
within 24 to 48 hours, spurs of epithelial cells from the edges both migrate and grow along
the cut margins of the dermis and beneath the surface scab to fuse in the midline, thus
producing a continuous but thin epithelial layer.
By day 3, the neutrophils have been largely replaced by macrophages. Granulation tissue
progressively invades the incisional space. Collagen fibers are now present in the margins
of the incision, but at first these are vertically oriented and do not bridge the incision.
Epithelial cell proliferation continues, thickening the epidermal covering layer.
By day 5, the incisional space is filled with granulation tissue. Neovascularization is
maximal. Collagen fibrils become more abundant and begin to bridge the incision. The
epidermis recovers its normal thickness and differentiation of surface cells yields a mature
epidermal architecture with surface keratinization.
During the second week, there is continued accumulation of collagen and proliferation of
fibroblasts. Leukocytic infiltrate, edema, and increased vascularity have largely
disappeared. At this time, the long process of blanching begins, accomplished by the
increased accumulation of collagen within the incisional scar, accompanied by regression
of vascular channels.
By the end of the first month, the scar comprises a cellular connective tissue devoid of
inflammatory infiltrate, covered now by an intact epidermis. The dermal appendages that
have been destroyed in the line of the incision are permanently lost. Tensile strength of the
wound increases thereafter, but it may take months for the wounded area to obtain its
maximal strength.

2. Healing by second intention (secondary union)

When there is more extensive loss of cells and tissue, such as occurs in infarction,
inflammatory ulceration, abscess formation, and surface wounds that create large defects,
the reparative process is more complicated. The common denominator in all these situations
is a large tissue defect that must be filled. Regeneration of parenchymal cells cannot
completely reconstitute the original architecture. Abundant granulation tissue grows in from
the margin to complete the repair. This form of healing is referred to as secondary union or
healing by second intention.
Secondary healing differs from primary healing in several respects:

1. Inevitably, large tissue defects initially have more fibrin and more necrotic debris and
exudate that must be removed. Consequently, the inflammatory reaction is more
2. Much larger amounts of granulation tissue are formed. When a large defect occurs in
deeper tissues, such as in a viscus, granulation tissue bears the full responsibility for
its closure, because drainage to the surface cannot occur.
3. Perhaps the feature that most clearly differentiates primary from secondary healing is
the phenomenon of wound contraction, which occurs in large surface wounds.
4. Healing by second intention takes much longer than when it occurs by first

VI. Factors that influence wound healing

A number of factors can alter the rate and efficiency of healing. These can be classified in to
those which act locally, and those which have systemic effects. Most of these factors have
been established in studies of skin wound healing but many are likely to be of relevance to
healing at other sites.

Local Factors

Type, size, and location of the wound

A clean, aseptic wound produced by the surgeons scalpel heals faster than a wound
produced by blunt trauma, which exhibits aboundant necrosis and irregular edges.Small

blunt wounds heal faster than larger ones.Injuries in richly vascularized areas (e.g., the face)
heal faster than those in poorly vascularized ones (e.g., the foot).
In areas where the skin adheres to bony surfaces, as in injuries over the tibia, wound
contraction and adequate apposition of the edges are difficult. Hence, such wounds heal

Vascular supply
Wounds with impaired blood supply heal slowly. For example, the healing of leg wounds in
patients with varicose veins is prolonged. Ischemia due to pressure produces bed sores and
then prevents their healing. Ischemia due to arterial obstruction, often in the lower
extremities of diabetics, also prevents healing.

Wounds provide a portal of entry for microorganisms. Infection delays or prevents healing,
promotes the formation of excessive granulation tissue (proud flesh), and may result in
large, deforming scars.

Early motion, particularly before tensile strength has been established, subjects a wound to
persistent trauma, thus preventing or retarding healing.

Ionizing radiation
Prior irradiation leaves vascular lesions that interfere with blood supply and result in slow
wound healing. Acutely, irradiation of a wound blocks cell proliferation, inhibits contraction,
and retards the formation of granulation tissue.

Systemic Factors

Circulatory status
Cardiovascular status, by determining the blood supply to the injured area, is important for
wound healing. Poor healing attributed to old age is often due, largely, to impaired

Systemic infections delay wound healing.

Metabolic status
Poorly controlled diabetes mellitus is associated with delayed wound healing.The risk of
infection in clean wound approaches five fold the risk in non- diabetics.
In diabetic patients, there can be impaired circulation secondary to arteriosclerosis and
impaired sensation due to diabetic neuropathy. The impaired sensation renders the lower
extremity blind to every day hazards. Hence, in diabetic patients, wounds heal the very

Nutritional deficiencies

Protein deficiency

In protein depletion there is an impairment of granulation tissue and collagen formation,
resulting in a great delay in wound healing.
Vitamine deficiency

Vitamin C is required for collagen synthesis and secretion. It is required in hydroxylation of
proline and lysine in the process of collagen synthesis. Vitamin C deficiency (scurvy) results
in grossly deficient wound healing, with a lack of vascular proliferation and collagen

Trace element deficiency

Zinc (a co-factor of several enzymes) deficiency will retard healing by preventing cell
proliferation. Zinc is necessary in several DNA and RNA polymerases and transferases;
hence, a deficiency state will inhibit mitosis. Proliferation of fibroblasts (fibroplasia) is,
therefore, retarded.

Corticosteroids impair wound healing, an effect attributed to an inhibition of ollagen
synthesis. However, these hormones have many other effects, including anti-inflammatory
actions and a general depression of protein synthesis. It also inhibits fibroplasia and
neovascularization. Both epithelialization and contraction are impaired. It is, therefore,
difficult to attribute their inhibition of wound healing to any one specific mechanism.

Thyroid hormones, androgens, estrogens and growth hormone also influence wound
healing. This effect, however, may be more due to their regulation of general metabolic
status rather than to a specific modification of the healing process.

Anti-inflammatory drugs
Anti-inflammatory medications do not interfere with wound healing when administered at the
usual daily dosages. Asprin and indomethalin both inhibit prostaglandin synthesis and thus
delay healing.

VII. Complications of Wound Healing

Abnormalities in any of the three basic healing processes contraction, repair, and
regeneration result in the complications of wound healing.

1. Infection
A wound may provide the portal of entry for many organisms. Infectrion may delay
healing, and if severe stop it completely.

2. Deficient Scar Formation
Inadequate formation of granulation tissue or an inability to form a suitable extracellular
matrix leads to deficient scar formation and its complications. The complications of
deficient scar formation are:
a. Wound dehiscence & incitional hernias
b. Ulceration

a. Wound Dehiscence and Incisional Hernias:

Dehiscence (bursting of a wound) is of most concern after abdominal surgery. If insufficient
extracellular matrix is deposited or there is inadequate cross-linking of the matrix, weak
scars result. Dehiscence occurs in 0.5% to 5% of abdominal operations.Inappropriate suture
material and poor surgical techiniques are important factors. Wound infection, increased
mechanical stress on the wound from vomiting, coughing, or ileus is a factor in most cases
of abdominal dehiscence. Systemic factors that predispose to dehiscence include poor
metabolic status, such as vitamin C deficiency, hypoproteinemia, and the general inanition

that often accompanies metastatic cancer. Dehiscence of an abdominal wound can be a life-
threatening complication, in some studies carrying a mortality as high as 30%.
An incisional hernia, usually of the abdominal wall, refers to a defect caused by poor wound
healing following surgery into which the intestines protrude.

b. Ulceration:
Wounds ulcerate because of an inadequate intrinsic blood supply or insufficient
vascularization during healing. For example, leg wounds in persons with varicose veins or
severe atherosclerosis typically ulcerate. Nonhealing wounds also develop in areas devoid
of sensation because of persistent trauma. Such trophic or neuropathic ulcers are
occasionally seen in patients with leprosy, diabetic peripheral neuropathy and in tertiary
syphilis from spinal involvement (in tabes dorsalis).

3. Excessive Scar Formation

An excessive deposition of extracellular matrix at the wound site results in a hypertrophic
scar or a keloid (See Figure 4-5 and 4-6). The rate of collagen synthesis, the ratio of type III
to type I collagen, and the number of reducible cross-links remain high, a situation that
indicates a maturation arrest, or block, in the healing process.

Keloid Formation

An excessive formation of collagenous tissue results in the appearance of a raised area of
scar tissue called keloid. It is an exuberant scar that tends to progress and recur after
excision. The cause of this is unknown. Genetic predisposition, repeated trauma, and
irritation caused by foreign body, hair, keratin, etc., may play a part. It is especially frequent
after burns. It is common in areas of the neck & in the ear lobes.

Hypertrophic Scar

Hypertrophic scar is structurally similar to keloid. However, hypertrophic scar never gets
worse after 6 months unlike keloid, which gets worse even after a year and some may even
progress for 5 to 10 years. Following excision keloid recurres, whereas a hypertrophic scar
does not.

4. Excessive contraction

A decrease in the size of a wound depends on the presence of myofibroblasts, development
of cell-cell contacts and sustained cell contraction. An exaggeration of these processes is
surrounding tissues. Contracture (cicatrisation) is also said to arise as a result of late
reduction in the size of the wound. Interestingly, the regions that normally show minimal
wound contraction (such as the palms, the soles, and the anterior aspect of the thorax) are
the ones prone to contractures. Contractures are particularly conspicuous in the healing of
serious burns. Contractures of the skin and underlying connective tissue can be severe
viscera such as urethra, esophagus, and intestine. It leads to progressive stenosis with
stricture formation. In the alimentary tract, a contracture (stricture) can result in an
Several diseases are characterized by contracture and irreversible fibrosis of the superficial
the contracture in wound healing.

5. Miscellaneous

sometimes persist, and proliferate to form an epidermoid cyst.

VIII. Fracture Healing

those seen in skin wound healing. Unlike healing of a skin wound, however, the defect
caused by a fracture is repaired not by a fibrous scar tissue, but by specialized bone-
forming tissue so that, under favorable circumstances, the bone is restored nearly to normal.

Structure of bone

Bone is composed of calcified osteoid tissue, which consists of collagen fibers embedded in
a mucoprotein matrix (osteomucin). Depending on the arrangement of the collagen fibers,
there are two histological types of bone:

1. Woven, immature or non-lamellar bone
of the osteocytes. The osseomucin is less abundant and it also contains less calcium.

2. Lamellar or adult bone

Stages in Fracture Healing (Bone Regeneration)

Stage 1: Haematoma formation. Immediately following the injury, there is a variable
extend into the surrounding muscles. If it is subsequently organized and ossified,
myositis ossificans results.
Stage 2: Inflammation. The tissue damage excites an inflammatory response, the exudate
no way from those seen in other inflamed tissues. There is an increased blood
flow and a polymorphonuclear leucocytic infiltration. The haematoma attains a
fusiform shape.
Stage 3: Demolition. Macrophages invade the clot and remove the fibrin, red cells, the
macrophages and osteoclasts.
Stage 4: Formation of granulation tissue. Following this phase of demolition, there is an
ingrowth of capillary loops and mesenchymal cells derived from the periosteum
and together with the newly formed blood vessels contribute to the granulation
tissue formation.

Stage 5: Woven bone and cartilage formation. The mesenchymal osteoblasts next
Stage 6: Formation of lamellar bone. The dead calcified cartilage or woven bone is next
invaded by capillaries headed by osteoclasts. As the initial scaffolding
Haversian systems are formed. Adjacent to the periosteum and endosteum the
lamellae are parallel to the surface as in the normal bone. This phase of formation
of definitive lamellar bone merges with the last stage.
Stage 7: Remodelling. The final remodeling process involving the continued osteoclastic
removed, the intermediate callus becomes converted into compact bone

IX. Exercises
1. Compare & contrast wound healing by primary & secondary union
2. State the factors that influence fracture healing.
3. Discuss the complications of wound healing.
4. What are the two basic processes of healing? What factors determine which of these

3. F.B. Walter and M.S Israel; General Pathology, Churchill Livingston Edinburgh and
London, 4
edition, 1974
4. Muirs .>> 15
5. Stanley L. Robin, Text book of Pathology with clinical applications, W.B. Saunders
Company, 2
edition, 1962.
6. Robbins Text book of pathology
7. Macfarlane, Reid, callander, Illustrated Pathology, Churchill Livingstone, 5
8. Rubins Textbook of Pathology
9. Bailey and Loves, Text Book of Surgery
10. Hardys Text Book of Surgery

I. Learing objectives

Upon completion of this chapter, students should be able to:
vasculature by Starling forces
disrupted across the vascular wall under different conditions, i.e. edema.
3. Understand and explain the cause and pathogenesis of clinical conditions like
myocardial infarction, deep venous thrombosis, pulumonary thromboembolism, etc.
4. Know the pathogenesis of edema of congestive heart failure, nephrotic syndrome,
cirrosis, and other clinical conditions
5. Have the basic knowledge about various types of shock, their pathogenesis,
manifestations, and complications.

II. Introduction

The health and well-being of cells & tissues depend not only on an intact circulation to
deliver nutrients but also on normal fluid hemostasis. This chapter reviews the major
disturbances involving the hemodynamic system.

III. Edema

Definition: Edema is increased fluid in the interstitial tissue spaces or it is a fluid
accumulation in the body cavities in excessive amount.
Depending on the site, fluid accumulation in body cavities can be variously designated as:
a) Hydrothorax fluid accumulation in pleural cavity in a pathologic amount.
b) Hydropericardium pathologic amount of fluid accumulated in the pericardial cavity.
c) Hydroperitoncum (ascites) fluid accumulation in peritoneal cavity.

d) Ancsarca is a severe & generalized edema of the body with profound
subcutaneous swelling.

Mechanism of edema formation:

Approximately 60% of the lean body weight is water, two-thirds of which is intracellular with
the remainder in the extracellular compartment.
The capillary endothelium acts as a semipermeable membrane and highly permeable to
water & to almost all solutes in plasma with an exception of proteins. Proteins in plasma
and interstial fluid are especially important in controlling plasma & interstitial fluid volume.
Normally, any outflow of fluid into the interstitium from the arteriolar end of the
microcirculation is nearly balanced by inflow at the venular end. Therefore, normally, there
is very little fluid in the interstitium.
Edema formation is determined by the following factors:
1) Hydrostatic pressure
2) Oncotic pressure
3) Vascular permeability
4) Lymphatic channels
5) Sodium and water retention

We will discuss each of the above sequentially.

1) Hydrostatic and oncotic pressures:

The passage of fluid across the wall of small blood vessels is determined by the balance
between hydrostatic & oncotic pressures.

There are four primary forces that determine fluid movement across the capillary membrane.
Each of them can be listed under the above two basic categories, the hydrostatic pressure &
the oncotic pressure. These four primary forces are known as Starling forces & they are:

a. The capillary hydrostatic pressure (Pc)
This pressure tends to force fluid outward from the intravascular space through the
capillary membrane to the interstitium.

b. The interstial fluid hydrostatic pressure (Pif)
This pressure tends to force fluid from the interstitial space to the intravascular
c. The plasma colloid osmotic (oncotic) pressure (p)
This pressure tends to cause osmosis of fluid inward through the capillary
membrane from the interstitium. The plasma oncotic pressure is caused by the
presence of plasma proteins.
d. The interstial fluid colloid osmotic (oncotic) pressure (if)
This pressure tends to cause osmosis of fluid outward through the capillary
membrane to the interstitium.

Fig. 5.1 The forces that determine the movement of fluid across the capillary wall.

The net filtration pressure can be calculated as

In addition, some fluid is normally derained by the lymphatic channels.Usually, excess fluid
will accumulate in the interstitium (i.e. edema is formed) when the capillary hydrostatic
pressure is increased or when the plama oncotic pressure is decreased or when the
lymphatic drainage is blocked.

Hence, basically, one can divide pathologic edema into two broad categories:

A. Edema due to decreased plasma oncotic pressure. The plasma oncotic pressure is
decreased when the plasma proteins are decreased in various diseases such as:

1. Protein loosing glomerulopathies like nephroticsyndrome with leaky glomerulus.
2. Liver cirrhosis which leads to decreased protein synthesis by the damaged liver.
3. Malnutrition
4. Protein loosing enteropathy.

= K [Pc +
] - [
+Pif ]

B. Edema resulting from increased capillary hydrostatic pressure as in the following

1. Deep venous thrombosis resulting in impaired venous return.
2. Pulmonary oedema
3. Cerebral oedema
4. Congestive heart failure

Clinical classification of edema:

One can also clinically classify edema into localized & generalized types.

A) Localized B) Generalized

1) Deep venous thrombosis 1) Nephrotic syndrome
2) Pulmonary edema 2) Liver cirrhosis
3) Brain edema 3) Malnutrition
4) Lymphatic edema 4) Heart failure
5) Renal failure
Next, we will elaborate on some of the above examples.

1. Localized edema

a. Edema of the brain:
- May be localized at the site of lesion e.g neoplasm, trauma.
- May be generalized in encephalitis, hypertensive crisis, & trauma
- Narrowed sulci & distended gyri.
- Edema compression of medulla towards formen magnum compression of
vital centers lead to - Hernation of the brain

Patient dies
b. Pulmonary edema

- Usually occurs in left ventricular failure.
- May occur in adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS).
- lung 2.3x its weight.

2. Generalized edema (anasarca) occurs due to

a. Reduction of albumin due to excessive loss or reduced synthesis as is caused by:
1) Protein loosing glomerulopathies like nephrotic syndrome
2) Liver cirrhosis
3) Malnutrition
4) Protein-losing enteropathy
b. Increased volume of blood secondary to sodium retention caused by congestive
heart failure:

Fig. 5.2 Mechanism of edema formation in congestive heart failure:

Reduced tissue perfusion

Rennin angiotensin
System (RAS) activated

- A proteolytic enzyme
- Secreted by myoepithelial cells
of juxtaglomerular apparatus
- Secreted in response to
1. A fall in renal afferent arteriolar perfusion
2. Decreased sodium concentration
in distal renal tubules
3. Via stimulation of sympatethic
nervous system

(angiotensin converting enzyme )

in the pulmonary circulation
- From angiotensinogen
- Globulin present in plasma
a. stimulate release of aldosterone
b. Causes vasoconstriction
c. degraded to angiotensin III which has
similar functions
NB: If perfusion fails to improve, this cycle will operate continuously further exacerbating the
edema resulting in anasarca.
Reduced Cardiac Output
Renal hypoperfusion
Release of arginin
vasopressin Sympathetic nervous system
Rennin release
Salt and water
Cleavage of
angiotensin I angiotensin II

This ends our discussion of the first two factors (listed near the beginning of this chapter)
which determine edema formation. We will now go on to discuss the other factors.

2) Vascular permeability:

Increased vascular permeability usually occurs due to acute inflammation. In inflammation,
chemical mediators are produced. Some of these mediators (See the chapter on
inflammation) cause increased vascular permeability which leads to loss of fluid & high
molecular weight albumin and globulin into the interstitium. Such edema (i.e. that caused by
increased vascular permeability) is called inflammatory edema. Inflammatory edema differs
from non-inflammatory edema by the following features

a) Inflammatory edema (exudate)

Due to inflammation-induced increased permeability and leakage of plasma
Forms an exudate [protein rich]
Specific gravity > 1.012

b) Non-inflammatory oedema (transudate)

A type of edema occurring in hemodynamic derangement (i.e. increased plasma
hydrostatic pressure & decreased plasma oncotic pressure. See above)
Formed transudate [protein poor]
Specific gravity < 1.012

3) Lymphatic channels:

Also important is the lymphatic system which returns to the circulation the small amount
of proteinaceous fluid that does leak from the blood into the interstial spaces. Therefore,
obstruction of lymphatic channels due to various causes leads to the accumulation of the
proteinaceous fluid normally drained by the lymphatic channels. Such kind of edema is
called lymphatic edema.

Lymphatic edema occurs in the following conditions:

1) Parasitic infection. E.g filariasis which causes massive lymphatic and inguinal
2) Lymphatic obstruction secondary to neoplastic infiltration. E.g. breast cancer
3) post surgical or post irradiation, i.e surgical resection of lymphatic channels or
scarring after irradiation

4) Sodium and water retention:

Sodium & subsequently water retention occurs in various clinical conditions such as
congetive heart failure (See Fig.5.2, above) & renal failure. In these conditions, the retained
sodium & water result in increased capillary hydrostatic pressure which leads to the edema
seen in these diseases.

Morphology of edema
- Manifests only as subtle cell swelling. Clearing & separation of extracellular matrix.

IV. Hypermia and Congestion

Definition: Both of them can be defined as a local increase in volume of blood in a
particular tissue.

- is an active process resulting from an increased inflow of blood into a tissue because
of arteriolar vasodilation.
- commonly occurs in exercising skeletal muscle or acute inflammation.
- Affected tissue becomes red as there is engorgement with oxygenated blood.

- is a passive process resulting from impaired outflow of blood from a tissue.
- occurs systemically as in cardiac failure or locally as in isolated venous obstruction.
- Affected tissue appears blue-red due to accumulation of deoxygenated blood.

- In long-standing congestion (also called chronic passive congestion states), poorly
oxygenated blood causes hypoxia results in parenchyma cell degeneration or
cell death.

a) Pulmonary congestion

Cut surface: hemorrhagic & wet.

1. Acute pulmonary congestion:
Alveolar capillaries engorged with blood
Septal edema

2. Chronic pulmonary congestion:
- Thickened & fibrotic septa
- Alveolar spaces contain hemosiderin-laden macrophages resulting in an
appearance termed brown indurations.
- Can result in pulmonary hypertension.

b) Hepatic congestion

1) Acute hepatic congestion:
- Central vein & sinusoids are distended
- There may be even central hepatocyte degeneration.
- Peripheral hepatocytes better oxygenated & develop only fatty changes.

2) Chronic passive congestion of liver:
- Central lobules grossly depressed because of loss of cells & appear red brown
(nutmeg liver).
- Hemosiderin laden macrophages
- In longstanding hepatic congestion, commonly associated with cardiac failure,
there is a grossly evident hepatic fibrosis called cardiac cirrhosis

V. Haemorrhage

Hemorrhage is extravasation of blood outside the blood vessel.

Physical trauma Stabbing
- Stick injury
- Gunshot
- Motor vehicle accident

Inadequacies in blood clotting which can be due to:

A. Too few or poorly functioning platelets (i.e. qualitative & quantitative defect of
B. Missing or low amount of clotting factors
E.g. Low levels of prothrombin, fibrinogen & other precursors.
Inadequate vitamin K leads to clotting factor deficiency because this vitamin is
important in the synthesis of the clotting factors by the liver.

1) Haemorrhage enclosed within a tissue or a cavity is knownas hematoma.
2) Minute 1-2 mm hemorrhages occurring in the skin, mucosal membrane, or serosal
surface are called petechiae.
3) Slightly > 3mm hemorrhage occurring in the skin is referred to as purpura.
4) Larger than 1-2cm subcutaneous hematoma is called eccymosis (bruises). It is typical
after trauma.

Effects of haemorrhage: depend on the rate and amount of blood loss:

If > 20% the total blood volume is rapidly lost from the body, it may lead to
hypovolumic shock & death.
Chronic loss of blood leads to anaemia.

VI. Hemostasis and Blood Coagulation

Definition: Hemostasis is the maintainence of the clot-free state of blood & the prevention of
blood loss via the formation of hemostatic plug.
Hemostasis depends on three general components:
a) Vascular wall
b) Platelets
c) Coagulation pathways

Whenever a vessel is ruptured or severed, hemostasis is achieved by several mechanisms:

A. Vascular spasm
B. Formation of platelet plug
C. Formation blood clot as a result of blood coagulation
D. Eventual growth of fibrous tissue in to the blood clot to close the hole in the vessel

Remark: The student is advised to revise his physiology lecture note on the above topics.

VII. Thrombosis

Under this topic, we will discuss the definition, pathogenesis, morphology, fates, &
clinical significance of thrombi, in this order.

Definition: Thrombosis is defined as the formation of a solid or semisolid mass from the
constituents of the blood within the vascular system during life.

There are three factors that predispose to thrombus formation. These factors are
called Virchows triad:
A: Endothelial injury
B: Stasis or turbulence of blood flow
C: Blood hypercoagulability

A: Endothelial injury

It is the most important factor in thrombus formation and by itself can lead to
Endothelial injury is particularly important in thrombus formation in the heart &
arterial circulation.
Some Examples:
Endocardial injury during myocardial infarction & eosinophilic endocarditis in
which eosiophils release from their granules crystals called Charcot Leyden
damaging the endocardial endothelium.
Injury over ulcerated plaque in severely atherosclerotic arteries.
In hemodynamic stress like severe hypertension & turbulence of flow over
scarred valves directly damaging the endothelium.
Bacterial endtoxin & hyperchloestrolemia, radiation & cigarette smoking may be
sources of endothelial injury.
Irrespective of endothelial damage, the final event is exposure of the highly
thrombogenic subendothelial extracellular matrix, mainly collagen & tissue factors up
on which platelets undergo adherence & contact activation.

B: Turbulence or Stasis (Alterations in normal blood flow)

Under physiologic conditions normal blood flow is laminar, that is, the cellular elements flow
centrally in the vessel lumen separated from endothelium by slowing moving clear zone of
plasma. Stasis & turbulence therefore:

a. Disrupt the laminar flow and bring platelets in to contact with the endothelium
b. Prevent dilution of activated clotting factors by freshly flowing blood
c. Retard or make a time lag in the inflow of clotting factor inhibitors and permit the build
up of thrombi.
d. Turbulence causes reduction in endothelial PGI
and tissue-type plasminogen
activator (t-PA) which has fibrinolytic activity causing endothelial cell activation. ???
Stasis is a major factor in the development of venous thrombi while turbulence
contributes to arterial & cardiac thrombosis by causing direct endothelial injury or by
forming countercurrents & local pockets of stasis.

a) Ulcerated atherosclerotic plaque, which forms a sort of irregularity on endothelial
surface, not only exposes subendothelial extracellular matrix but are also
sources of local turbulence.
b) Aneurysms are favoured sites of stasis
c) Myocardial infarction not only has endothelial injury but also has a region of
noncontractile myocardium, creating an area of stasis resulting in mural
thrombus formation.
d) Mitral valve stenosis after chronic rheumatic fever may result in left atrial dilation,
usually associated with arterial fibrillation. A dilated left atrium is a site of stasis &
a prime location of thrombus development.
e) Hypervisicosity syndrome, i.e an increase in hematocrit in excessive amount due
to various reasons such as polycythemia causes stasis in small vessels.

C: Hypercoagulablity

Definition: Hypercoagulability is any alteration of the coagulation pathway that predisposes
to thrombosis. Hypercoagulability is a less common cause of thrombosis & & it can be
divided into:

1. Primary (Genetic)

Mutations in factor V[Lieden factor]
Anti thrombin III deficiency
Protein C or S deficiency

2. Secondary (Acquired) which, in turn, can be categorized into:

A: High-risk for hypercoagulablity
prolonged bed rest or immobilization
Myocardial infarction
Tissue damage (surgery, fracture, burns)
ancers (Cancers release procoagulant tissue products to cause thrombosis)
Prosthetic cardiac valves
Disseminated intra vascular coagulation

B: Low risk factor for hypercoagulablity

A trial fibrillation
Nephrotic syndrome
Oral contraceptives
Hyperestrogenic state eg. Pregnancy.

Morphology of Thrombi

Thrombi may develop any where in the cardiovascular system.
According to their location, thrombi can be divided into venous & arterial thrombi.
(Cardiac thrombi can be considered as arterial thrombi because of certain similarities
between the two). The differences between arterial & venous thrombi are:

Arterial thrombi Venous thrombi
a) Arise at the site of endothelial injury a) Arise at area of stasis
b) Grow in a retrograde fasion, against b) Grow in the direction of blood flow from its
site of attachment.flow towards the heart
c) Has firm attachment c) Has loose attachment, hence, propagating
d) They usually occlude the blood flow tail may undergo fragmentation.
d) Almost invariably occlusive

The most common site of arterial thrombi in descending order are:

o Coronary arteries
o Cerebral arteries
o Temporal arteries

Damaged valves can be infected by bacteria or fungi (infective endocarditis) which leads
to the development of small infected thrombi on the valves. These small infected thrombi
(vegetations) can further damage the valve.

Fates of a thrombus

A thrombus can have one of the following fates:

A: Propagation:

The thrombus may accumulate more platelets and fibrin & propagate to cause vessel

B: Embolization:

The thrombus may dislodge and travel to other sites in the vasculature. Such a traveling
thrombus is called an embolus. An embolus may obstruct a vessel. The obstruction leads to
the death of the tissue supplied by the blood vessel. Death of a tissue due to a decreased
blood supply or drainage is called infarction. Therefore, an embolus can eventually lead to
an infarction of an organ. E.g cerebral infarction can be caused by a thromboembolus.
We will discuss embolism & infarction shortly (See p. ).

C: Dissolution:

The thrombus may be removed by fibrinolytic activity.

D: Organization and recanalization

Organization refers to the ingrowth of endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, and fibroblasts
into the fibrin-rich thrombus. Organization is accompanied by the formation of capillary
channels across the thrombus, re-establishing lumen continuity to some extent. This is
known as recanalization. The recanalization eventually converts the thrombus into a
vasscularized mass of tissue which is later on incorporated as a subendothelial swelling of
the vessel wall.

Clinical significance of thrombi

Thrombi are significant clinically because:
- They cause obstruction of arteries and veins &
- They are possible source of emboli.

We will discuss the clinical effects of venous & arterial thrombi separately.

A. Venous Thrombosis (Phlebothrombosis)

Venous thrombosis affects veins of the lower extremity in 90% of cases. It can be divided
into superficial & deep vein thrombosis:

1. Superficial venous thrombosis

- Usually occurs in saphenous venous system, particularly when there are varicosities.
- Rarely embolizes
- Causes local edema, pain, and tenderness (i.e. it is symptomatic)
- Local edema due to impaired venous drainage predisposes the involved overlying skin
to infection after slight trauma leading to a condition known as varicose ulcer.

2. Deep venous thrombosis (DVT)

- May embolize, hence, is more serious.
- Usually starts in deep veins within the calf muscles.
- Although they may cause local pain & edema, unlike superficial veinous thrombosis,
they are entirely asymptomatic in approximately 50% of patients. This is because
deep venous obstruction is rapidly offset or releaved by collateral bypass channels.
- Has higher incidence in middle aged & elderly people due to increased platelet
aggregation & reduced PGI
production by the endothelium.
- Has the following predisposing factors:

1. Trauma, surgery, burns which usually result in:-

a:Reduced physical activity leading to stasis
b:Injury to vessels
c:Release of procagulant substance from the tissue
d:Reduced t-PA activity (fibrinolysis)

2. Pregnancy & puerperal states increase coagulation factors & reduce the synthesis of
antithrombotic substances. Myocardial infarction & heart failure cause venous stasis to
the left side.

3. Malnutrition, debilitating conditions and wasting diseases such as cancer. DVT due to
these conditions is known as marantic thrombosis.

4. Inflammation of veins (thrombophlebitis) also predisposes to thrombosis.

5. Migratory thrombophlebitis is a condition that affects various veins throughout the body
& is usually of obscure aetiology, but sometimes it is associated with cancer, particularly
pancreatic cancer. Migratory thrombophlebitis is also known as Trosseau syndrome.

B. Arterial Thrombosis
- The rapid flow of arterial blood prevents the occurrence of thrombosis unless the
vessel wall is abnormal.
- In western society atheroma is by far the commonest predisposing lesion for arterial
thrombosis. Atheromatous plaques produce turbulence and may ulcerate & cause
endothelial injury, both of which can lead to thrombosis. These thrombi may narrow
or occlude the lumen of arteries such as the coronary and cerebral arteries.
Occlusion of these arteries will lead to myocardial infarction (MI) & cerebral infarction
- Cardiac thrombi can be caused by infective endocarditis, atrial fibrillation,&
myocardial infarcion.
- Cardiac thrombosis is common on the heart valves & in the auricular appendages
(especially, of the right atrium). A thrombus develops in the atrium in patients with
atrial fibrillation & dilatation superimposed on mitral stenosis.
- Myocardial infarction causes dyskinetic myocardial contraction & damage to the
endocardium, which usually result in mural thrombi in the ventricles.
- Apart from obstructive features, arterial thrombi (especially, cardiac mural thromi)
may embolize to any tissue, but, particularly, commonly to the brain, kidney, &
spleen because of large volume of blood flow to these organs.

VIII. Embolism

An embolus is a detached intravascular solid, liquid or gaseous mass that is carried by
blood to sites distant from its point of origin. After traveling via the blood, the embolus can
obstruct a vessel.

Causes of embolism:

An embolus can arise from:
o Thrombus (99% of emboli arise from a thrombus. Such an embolus is called
o Platelets aggregates
o Fragment of material from ulcerating atheromatous plaque
o Fragment of a tumour
o Fat globules
o Bubbles of air
o Amniotic fluid
o Infected foreign material
o Bits of bone marrow
o Others.

Unless otherwise specified, the term embolism should be considered to mean
thromboembolism. This is because thromboembolism is the commonest form of embolism.
Next, we will discuss it in more detail.

Based on its sites of origin & impaction, thromboembolism can be divided into:

a) Pulmonary thromboembolism (PTE)
o PTE is refers to the impaction of an embolus in the pulumonary arteries & their
branches. Such an embolus is derived from a thrombus in the systemic veins or the
right side of the heart.

b) Systemic thromboembolism
o Systemic emboli arise from the left side of the heart or from thrombi & atheromatous
debris in large arteries. And they impact in the systemic arteries.

c) Crossed embolism (Paradoxical embolism)
o This occurs in the presence of patent foremen ovale when an embolus is transferred
from the right to the left side of the heart, then into the systemic circulation.

Now, we will elaborate the first two.

a) Pulmonary thrombeomblism (PTE)
95% of PTE arise from thromi in the deep leg veins. The thromboembolus will travel long
with the venous return & reach the right side of the heart. From there, it will go into the
pulmonary trunk & pulmonary arteries. Depending on the size of the embolus and on the
state of pulumonary circulation, the pulmonary embolism can have the following effects:

1. If the thrombus is large, it may block the outflow tract of the right ventricle or the
bifurcation of the main pulumonary trunk (saddle embolus) or both of its branches,
causing sudden death by circulatory arrest. Sudden death, right side heart failure
(cor pulmonale), or cardiovascular collapse occurs when 60% or more of the
pulumonary circulation is obstructed with emboli.
2. If the embolus is very small (as in 60-80% of the cases), the pulmonary emboli will
be clinically silent. Embolic obstruction of medium sized arteries manifests as
pulmonary haemorrhage but usually does not cause infarction because of dual blood
inflow to the area from the bronchial circulation.
3. If the cardiorespiratory condition of the patient is poor (i.e., if the patient previously
had cardiac or pulmonary disease), then obstruction of a medium sized pulmonary
artery by a medium-sized embolus can lead to pulmonary infarction.
4. Recurrent thromboembolism can lead to pulmonary hypertension in the long run.
A patient who has had one pulmonary embolus is at high risk of having more.

b) Systemic thromboembolism
Systemic thromboembolism refers to emboli travelling within arterial circulation &
impacting in the systemic arteries.

Most systemic emboli (80%) arise from intracardiac mural thrombi. In turn, two
thirds of intracardiac mural thrombi are associated with left ventricular wall infarcts
and another quarter with dilated left atria secondary to rheumatic valvular heart
The remaining (20%) of systemic emboli arise from aortic aneurysm, thrombi on
ulcerated athrosclerotic plaques, or fragmentation of valvular vegetation.
Unlike venous emboli, which tend to lodge primarily in one vascular bed (the lung),
arterial emboli can travel to a wide variety of sites. The major sites for arteriolar
embolization are the lower extremities (75%) & the brain (10%), with the rest
lodging in the intestines, kidney, & spleen. The emboli may obstruct the arterial
blood flow to the tissue distal to the site of the obstruction. This obstruction may
lead to infarction. The infarctions, in turn, will lead to different clinical features
which vary according to the organ involved.

Next, we will briefly touch upon some rare forms of embolism.

Fat Embolism

Fat embolism usually follows fracture of bones and other type of tissue injury. After the
injury, globules of fat frequently enter the circulation. Although traumatic fat embolisms
occur usually it is as symptomatic in most cases and fat is removed. But in some severe
injuries the fat emboli may cause occlusion of pulmonary or cerebral microvasculature and
fat embolism syndrome may result. Fat embolism syndrome typically begins 1 to 3 days
after injury during which the raised tissue pressure caused by swelling of damaged tissue
forces fat into marrow sinsosoid & veins. The features of this syndrome are a sudden onset
of dyspnea, blood stained sputum, taccycardia, mental confusion with neurologic symptoms
including irritability & restlessness, sometimes progress to delirium & coma.

5. Air embolism

Gas bubbles within the circulation can obstruct vascular flow and cause distal ischemic
injury almost as readily as thrombotic masses. Air may enter the circulation during:
Obstetric procedures
Chest wall injury
In deep see divers & under water construction workers.
In individuals in unpressurized aircraft

Neck wounds penetrating the large veins
Cardio thoracic surgery.
Arterial catheterisation& intravenous infusion.

Generally, in excesses of 100cc is required to have a clinical effect and 300cc or more may
be fatal. The bubbles act like physical obstructions and may coalesce to form a frothy mass
sufficiently large to occlude major vessels.

Amniotic fluid embolism

It is a grave but un common, unpredictable complication of labour which may complicate
vaginal delivery, caesarean delivery and abortions. It had mortality rate over 80%. The
amniotic fluid containing fetal material enters via the placental bed & the ruptured uterine
veins. The onset is characterized by sudden severe dyspnea, cyanosis, hypotensive shock
followed by seizure & coma of the labouring mother. If the patient survives the initial crisis,
pulmonary oedema typically develops & 50% of the cases will develop DIC due to activation
of the coagulation cascade by fetal material.
As discussed in this & the previous subtopics, the potential consequence of thromboembolic
events is ischemic necrosis of distal tissue, known as infarction. Therefore, it is appropriate
to discusss it next.

IX. Infarction

Definition: An infract is an area of ischemic necrosis caused by occlusion of either the
arterial supply or venous drainage in a particular tissue.

Nearly 99% of all infarcts result from thrombotic or embolic events. Other mechanisms
include [almost all of them are arterial in origin]:
Local vasospasm
Expansion of atheroma due to hemorrage in to athermotous plaque.
External compression of the vessels. e.g trauma
Entrapment of vessels at hernial sacks etc.

The development & the size of an infarct are determined by the following factors:

A. The nature of the vascular supply
B. The rate of development of occlusion
C. Suceptibility of the tissue for hypoxia
D. Oxygen content of the blood
E. The severity & duration of ischemia

A. The nature of vascular supply

The following organs have a dual blood supply.

Lung pulumonary artery
Bronchial artery
Liver hepatic artery
Portal vein
Hand & forearm
Radial arteries
Ulnar arteries.

The effect of such a dual blood supply is that if there is obsrtuction of one of the arterial
supplies, the other one may offset the rapid occurrence of infarction in these organs unlike
the renal & splenic circulations which have end arterial supply.

Infarction caused by venous thrombosis is more likely to occur in organs with single venous
outflow channels, such as testis &ovary.

B: Rate of development occlusion

Slowly developing occlusions are less likely to cause infraction since they provide time for
the development of collaterals.

C: Tissue suceptibility to hypoxia:

The susceptibility of a tissue to hypoxia influences the likelihood of infarction. Neurons
undergo irreversible damage when deprived of their blood supply for only 3 to 4 minutes.
Myocardial cells die after 20-30 minutes of ischemia. Fibroblasts are more resistant,
especially those in the myocardium.

D: Oxygen content of blood

Partial obstruction of the flow of blood in an anaemic or cyanotic patient may lead to tissue

E: The severity & duration of ischemia.

Types of infarcts

Infarcts are classified depening on:

A) the basis of their colour (reflecting the amount of haemorrhage) into:

1. Hemorrhagic (Red) infarcts
2. Anemic (White) infarcts

B) the presence or absence of microbial infection into:
1. Septic infarcts
2. Bland infarcts

1. Red infarcts occur in:

a) Venous occlusions as in ovarian torsion
b) Loose tissues such as the lung which allow blood to collect in infarct zone.
c) Tissues with dual circulations (eg. the lung), permitting flow of blood from unobstructed
vessel in to necrotic zone.
d) In tissues that were previously congested because of sluggish outflow of blood.
e) When blood flow is reestablished to a site of previous arterial occlusion & necrosis.

2. White infarcts occur in:

a) Arterial occlusion in organs with a single arterial blood supply.
b) Solid organs such as the heart, spleen, & kidney, where the solidity of the tissue limits
the amount of hemorrage that can percolate or seep in to the area of ischemic necrosis
from the nearby capillaries.

Morphology of infarcts

Gross: All infarcts are wedge-shaped with the occluded vessel at the apex and the
periphery of the organ forming the base of the wedge. THe infarction will induce
inflammation in the tissue surrounding the area of infarction. Following inflammation, some
of the infarcts may show recovery, however, most are ultimately replaced with scars except
in the brain.

The dominant histologic feature of infarction is ischemic coagulative necrosis. The brain is
an exception to this generalization, where liquifactive necrosis is common.

Clinical examples of infarction:

A. Myocardial infarction

Usually results from occlusive thrombosis supervening on ulcerating atheroma of a
major coronary artery.
Is a white infarct.
Can cause sudden death, cardiac failure, etc...

B. Cerebral infarcts

May appear as pale or hemorrhagic
A fatal increase in intracranial pressure may occur due to swelling of large cerebral
infarction, as recent infarcts are raised above the surface since hypoxic cells lack
the ability to maintain ionic gradients & they absorb water & swell.
Is one type of cerebrovascular accidents (CVA) or stroke which has various clinical

C. Lung infarcts

Are typically dark red & conical (wedge-shaped).
Can cause chest pain, hemoptysis, etc

D. Splenic infarcts

- Conical & sub capsular
- Initially dark red later turned to be pale.

X. Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC)

Definition: -DIC is an acute, or chronic thrombohemorrhagic disorder occurring as a result
of progressive activation of coagulation pathway beyond physiologic set point secondary to
a variety of diseases resulting in failure of all components of hemostasis. Hence the other
term for DIC is consumption coagoulopathy.

Etiology andPathogensis

At the outset, it must be emphasize that DIC is not a primary disease. It is a coagulopathy
that occurs in the course of variety of clinical conditions. DIC follows massive or prolonged
release of soluble tissue factors & /or endothelial-derived thromboplastin into the circulation
with generalized (pathologic) activation of coagulation system.
Therefore, DIC results from pathologic activation of the extrinsic &/or intrinsic pathways of
coagulation or impairment of clot inhibiting influences by different causes. Two major
mechanisms activating the coagulation pathway to cause DIC are: (1) release of tissue
factor or thromboplastic substance into the circulation (2) widespread injury to the
endothelial cells.

1. Tissue thromboplastin substance may be derived from a variety of sources such as:
A: Massive trauma, severe burns & extensive surgery. The major mechanism of DIC is
believed to be autoinfusion of thromboplastin from the tissues.
B: Obstetric conditions in which thromboplastin derived from the placenta, dead
retained fetus, or amniotic fluid may enter the circulation. .

C: Cancers such as acute promyelocytic leukaemia, adenocarcinoma of the lung in
which a variety of thromboplastin substances like mucus are released which directly
activate factor X, VII, & proteolytic enzymes.
D: Gram negative sepsis (an important cause of DIC) in which bacterial endoxins
cause increased synthesis, membrane exposure, & release of tissue factor from
monocytes. Furthermore, activated monocysts release intereukin-1 (IL-I), TNF-,
both of which:

Increase expression of tissue factor in endothelial membrane.
Decrease expression of thrombmodulin which is a potent activator of protein C-
an anti coagulant
TNF-, an extremely important mediator of septic shock, in addition to the above,
up regulates the expression of adhesion molecules on endothelial cells and
favours adhesion of leukocytes, with subsequent damage of endothelial cells by
free radicals & preformed proteases.

2. Endothelial injury: Widespread endothelial injury may result from:
- Deposition of antigen-antibody complexes as it occurs in systemic lupus
- Extreme temperature eg. Heat stroke, burns
- Hypoxia, acidosis, shock

Clinical Course

The consequences of DIC are two fold. First, there is a widespread deposition of fibrin within
the microcirculation. This may lead to ischemia of the more severely affected or more
vulnerable organs and hemolytic anemia resulting from fragmentation of led cells as they
squeeze through the narrowed microvasculature (Microangiopathic haemolytic anaemia).
Second, a hemorrhagic diathesis may dominate the clinical picture because of consumption
of the coagulation factors and increased fibrinolysis.
The onset may be fulminant when caused by endotoxic shock or amniotic fluid embolism or
it may be chronic in the case of carcinomatosis or retention of dead fetus. The clinical
presentation varies with stage & severity of the syndrome. Overall 50% of patients with DIC
are obstetric patients & about 33% of patients have carcinomatosis.
Clinically, patients with DIC may present with extensive skin & mucus membrane bleeding
and haemorrhage from multiple sites, usually from surgical incision, vein punctures, or

catheter sites. Respiratory symptoms such as dyspnea, cyanosis may occur. They may
present with convulsion & coma in the case of CNS bleeding or with acute renal failure with
oliguria. Less often, they may present with acrocyanosis, pre-gangrenous changes in the
digits, genitalia, & nose areas where blood flow may be markedly decreased. Circulatory
failure may appear suddenly & may be progressing. The presentations of acute DIC, as it
occurs in case of trauma or obstetric conditions, is dominated by bleeding diathesis.
Laboratory manifestations include thrombocytopenia secondary to platelets aggregation in
the thrombus, schistocytes or fragmented RBCs, prolonged PT, PTT, thrombin time &
reduced fibrinogen from depleted coagulation proteins. There is also increased fibrin
degradation product (FDP) from intense fibrinolysis. The cardinal manifestation of DIC,
which correlates most closely with bleeding is plasma fibrinogen level, i.e. low fibrinogen
means increased tendency of bleeding.

- Placental abruption
- septic abortion
- retained dead fetus
- toxemia of pregenancy
- amniotic fluid embolism

Release of tissue
Factor platelets

Activation of

Microangiopathic vascular
Haemolytic anemia occlusion

Split product

Inhibition of thrombin
Platelets aggregation
Fibrin polymerisation

Fig. 5.3 Patholphysiology of DIC

Massive tissue
Widespread micro
vascular thrombosis
Ischemic tissue
of coagulation
Obstetric conditions
Proteolysis of
Clotting factors

XI. Shock

Definition: Shock is a state in which there is failure of the circulatory system to maintain
adequate cellular perfusion resulting in widespread reduction in delivery of oxygen & other
nutrients to tissues. In shock, the mean arterial pressure is less than 60 mmHg or the
systolic blood pressure is less than 90 mmHg.

Regardless of the underlying pathology, shock constitutes systemic hypoperfusion
due to reduction either in cardiac out put or in the effective circulating blood volume.
The end results are hypotension followed by impaired tissue perfusion and cellular
Adequate organ perfusion depends on arterial blood pressure (BP) which, in turn,
depends on:
1. Cardiac output (CO)
2. Peripheral vascular resistance (PVR)

CO = stroke volume X heart rate
In turn, stroke volume depends on:
a) Preload i.e. blood volume,
b) Afterload i.e. arterial resistance, &
c) Myocardial contractility.

Therefore, shock (i.e. widespread decreased perfusion of tissues) occurs when the
preload (i.e. the blood volume) is decreased, or when the afterload (the peripheral
vascular resistance) is decreased, or when the myocardium fails to contract. These
basic mechanisms of shock are used to classify it. Next, we will look at the
classification of shock.

Classification of shock

Shock can be divided into:

A. Hypovolemic shock
B. Cardiogenic shock
C. Distributive shock

A. Hypovolemic shock

Definition: This is shock caused by reduced blood volume. Reduction in circulating blood
volume results in the reduction of the preload which leads to inadequate left ventricular
filling, reflected as decreased left & right ventricular end diastolic volume and pressure. The
reduced preload culminates in decreased cardiac out put which leads to widespread tissue
perfusion (shock).

Causes of hypovolumic shock include:

a) Haemorrhage
b) Diarrhoea & vomiting
c) Burns
d) Trauma
e) etc

The effect of haemorrhage depends on the rate and amount of blood loss. Hypovolumic
shock is the most common type of shock in clinical medicine .A normal healthy adult can
lose 550ml (10%of blood volume) without significant symptoms.
But loss of 25% or more of the blood volume (N=1250ml) results in significant hypovolemia.
B. Cardiogenic shock

Definition: This is shock that results from severe depression of cardiac performance. It
primarily results from pump failure [myocardial failure].

Cardiogenic shock is hemodynamically defined as:

o DBP<60mm Hg
o Left ventricle filling pressure > 18mm Hg
o Cardiac index< 1.8 l/min/m

o Usually pulmonary oedema coexists.

Causes of cardiogenic shock can be divided into:

A. Myopathic
B. Mechanical

A) Myopathic causes of cardiogenic shock include:
1. Acute myocardial infraction. Usually shock occurs in this conditioin if 40% of the left
ventricular mass & more on the right ventricle is involved by infarction.
2. Mycocarditis
3. Dilated cardiomyopathy/hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
4. Myocardial depression in septic shock
5. Etc.

B) Mechanical
i) Intracardiac
a) Left ventricle outflow obstruction E.g.Aortic stenosis, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
b) Reduction in forward cardiac output E.g. Aortic or mitral regurgitation
c) Arrhythmia

ii) Extracardiac
This can be called obstructive shock. The extracardiac causes of cardiogenic shock can be
caused by:
a) Pericardial tamponade (gross fluid accumulation in the pericardial space) results in a
decreased ventricular diastolic filling CO
b) Tension pneumothorax (gas accumulation in pleural space)
This decreases the venous return by creating a positive pressure.
c) Acute massive pulumonary embolism occupying 50-60% of pulumonary vascular bed.
d) Severe pulumonary hypertension (1
pulmonary hypertension).

C. Distributive shock
Definition: Distributive shock refers to a group of shock subtypes caused by profound
peripheral vasodilatation despite normal or high cardiac output.

Causes of distributive shock
1) Septic shock the commonest among the group & clinically very important.
2) Neurogenic shock

- Usually occurs in the setting of anaesthetic procedure [cephalo-caudal migration of
anaesthetic agent] or spinal cord injury owing to loss of vascular tone & peripheral
pooling of blood.
3) Anaphylactic shock
- Initiated by generalized IgE mediated hypersensitivity response, associated with
systemic vasodilatation & increased vascular permeability.
4) Endocrine shock
- This is a type of shock that typically occurs in adrenal insufficiency.

Next, we will discuss septic shock in some detail. But before discussing septic shock in
detail it would be useful to know some aspects of sepsis briefly. Bactermia is the presence
of viable bacteria in the blood as evidenced by blood culture. Septicemia is systemic
infection due the presence of microbes and their toxin the blood. Sepsis is a systemic
response to severe infection mediated via macrophage-derived cytokines that target end
organ receptors in response to infection. It is also called SIRS.

Septic shock

Definition: This is a kind of shock caused by systemic microbial infection, most commonly
by gram negative infection (endotoxic shock) but can also occur with gram positive or
fungal infections.
It can be defined as sepsis with
1. Hypotention, arterial blood pressure less than 90mmHg or 40mmHg less than the
patients normal blood pressure,
2. Organ dysfunction, &
3. Unresponsiveness to fluid administration.

Pathogenesis of septic shock:

Septic shock has a mortality rate of over 50% ranking the first among the causes of death in
intensive care units. It results from the spread & expansion of an initially localized infection
like pneumonia into the blood stream.

Most causes of septic shock (~70%) are caused by endotoxin-producing gram-negative
bacilli, hence the term endotoxic shock. Endotoxins are bacterial wall lipopolyschardes
(LPS) released when cell walls are degraded. Analogues molecules in the walls of gram-
positive bacteria & fungi can also elicit septic shock. LPS bind with CD14 molecule on
leucocytes, especially monocytes & macrophages, endothelial cells & others. Depending on
the dosage of LPS protein complex, initiation of a cascade of cytokine-mediated events
take place.

The mononuclear phagocytes respond to LPS by producing TNF which, in turn, induces IL
1 synthesis. TNF & IL-1 both act on endothelial cells to produce further cytokines like IL-6,
IL-8, & secondary effectors like NO & PAF (platelet aggregating factor).
High levels of the above molecules or mediators (TNF-, IL-1, etc) cause septic
shock by acting on:

The heart causing decreased myocardial contractility which results in low cardiac
Blood vessel causing systemic vasodilation which decreases the peripheral arteries.
The mediators also cause widespread endothelial injury & activation of the coagulation
system resulting in DIC, &
Lung causing alveolar capillary damage resulting in adult respiratory distress syndrome

Stages of shock
Uncorrected shock passes through 3 important stages:
1) An initial nonprogressive phase
o It is also called a period of early compensatory period, during which compensatory
mechanisms are activated & perfusion of vital organs maintained.
o A variety of neurohumoral mechanisms operate:
i) A decrease in cardiac output will stimulate peripheral & central baro receptors with
subsequent intense sympatho-adrenal stimulation. This sometimes leads to up to
200 fold increase in plasma catecholamine level. The net effect is Tachycardia,
HR CO Peripheral vasoconstriction BP. This is a major
autocompensatory response.
ii) The fall in renal perfusion stimulates the renin aldosterone secretion mechanism
renal conservation of fluid.

2. Progressive stage (Established shock)
This is characterized by tissue hypoperfusion with onset of worsening circulatory &
metabolic imbalances including acidosis.
There is a widespread tissue hypoxia.
Anaerobic gycolysis results in excessive lactic acid production. The lactic acid reduces
tissue PH & blunts vasomotor response. The hypoxic cells leak glucose leading to
insulin-resistant hyperglycaemia and increased glycogenolysis. Impaired carbohydrate
metabolism causes a fall in production of ATP, failure in function of Na
- K
result in Na & water enterance into the cell, causing cellular swelling also called sick cell
syndrome. Anoxic injury to endothelial cells results in DIC.

3. An irreversible stage
A sage at which, even if hemodynamic disorders are corrected survival is not
Transition to irreversible damage is mediated via various mechanisms.

Morphology of septic shock:
All organs are affected in severe shock. In shock, there is widespread tissue
hypoperfusion involving various organs such as the heart, brain, & kidney. This leads to
widespread hypoxic tissue necrosis. The widespread tissue necrosis manifests as
multiple organ dysfunction [MODS]. Various organs may fail to perform their normal
functions. And lungs may show ARDS or Shock lung.

Clinical course of shock
Patient with shock may manifest as having a weak and rapid pulse, tachypenia, & cool,
clammy, cyanotic skin. In septic shock, the skin will initially be warm & flushed because
of peripheral vasodilation. The patient may present with confusion, restlessnes,
decreased urine output, coma, and death.

XII. Excercises

1. a) What is edema?
b) Enumerate four clinical conditions that cause generalized body oedema. Discuss their
c) Enumerate the causes of oncotic and nononcotic oedema.

2. Case study I: A 40 year old patient got a car accident and he was found to have femoral
shaft fracture & then he suddenly developed dyspnea, cyanosis, and shock and passed
away immediately after surgery. There was no massive blood loss at the time of trauma
or during surgery. The probable cause of death is:
a) Shock
b) Arterial emboli
c) Fat embolism
d) Stress
e) None

3. a) Define infarction.
b) Briefly discuss the difference between venous & arterial thromboses
c) Enumerate the difference between red & white infracts & the organs in which they
commonly occur.

4. Case study II: A 28 year old female patient presented with fever, chills, decreased urine
output, offensive vaginal discharge, and abdominal pain. One week earlier she had an
abortion attended by a non-medical personnel with metallic materials. The doctor found
out that her blood pressure was 60/20 mmHg, that she has altered consciousness, & a
temperature of 38.9
a) What is the primary problem?
b) What is the complication of the primary problem? Discuss the pathogenesis of this
c) What organisms are the most likely causes of the disease?
d) What are the morphologic changes & their complications that will be seen in different
organs in this patient?

5. a) Describe the coagulation system & its normal purpose (function).
b) Enumerate vitamin K dependent coagulating factors.
c) Enumerate the cause of DIC

6. Give a brief explanation for the following questions.

a) Why is venous embolus is almost always occlusive compared to arterial emboli?
b) What is the pathogenesis shared by both myocardial infarction and ulcerated
atherosclerotic plaque in causing thrombosis?
C] Why is superficial phlebothrombosis more symptomatic than deep vein thrombosis?

7. Discuss the causes of hypovolemic & cardiogenic shock.

I. Learning objectives:

At the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:-
1. Know the basis of genetic diseases.
2. Know the 4 major categories of genetic diseases.
3. Know the categories of mendelian disorders based on their pattern of inheritance &
give some examples of each category.
4. Know the categories of mendelian disorders based on the type of protein involved
(i.e. the biochemical mechanism) & give some examples of each category.
5. Know the different types of chromosomal disorders & give examples for each type.
6. Know multifactorial disorders.

II. Introduction

A knowledge of the normal human genetics will facilitate the understanding of genetic
diseases. Hence, the student is advised to revise the normal human genetics before reading
this chapter. Here, only brief highlights of the normal are given. Genetic diseases are often
said to be difficult tostudents. We have tried to dispell this wrong notion & to make genetic
as clear as possible at the cost of brevity. we did in order to facilitate the students

Genetic information is stored in DNA. The typical normal human cell contains 46
chromosomes {i.e. 23 pairs of chromosomes: 22 homologous pairs of autosomes & one pair
of sex chromosomes (XX or XY)}. Members of a pair (described as homologous
chromosomes or homologs] carry matching genetic information. I.e. they have the same
gene loci in the same sequence, though at any specific locus they may have either identical
or slightly different forms, which are called alleles. One member of each pair of
chromosomes is inherited from the father, the other from the mother.Each chromosome is in
turn composed of a very long unbranched molecule of DNA bound to histones & other
proteins. This interaction between the long DNA molecule & the histones decreases the
space occupied by the long DNA. I.e. this interaction packages the long DNA into the
shorter chromosomes.

Each chromosome contains a single continuous DNA molecule. DNA is composed of two
very long complementary chains of deoxynucleotides. The 2 chains (strands) of DNA wind
around each other i.e. twist about each other forming a double helix the twisted ladder
model. Each deoxynucleotide, in turn, is composed of a nitrogenous base {i.e. adenine (A),
or guanine (G), or cytosine (C), or thymine (T)} bound to deoxyribose & phosphate.

DNA has two basic functions:

1. It codes for the proteins which are important for the metabolic & structural functions of
the cell. I.e. it provides the genetic information for protein synthesis.

2. It transmits the genetic information to the daughter cells & to the offsprings of the

Hence, the central dogma of molecular biology is:-

Figer 6-1 showing the central dogma of molecular biology
DNA transcription RNA translation

DNA stores genetic information. This is done by the sequence of the nucleotides in the
DNA. The portion of DNA that is required for the production of a protein is called a gene. A
gene has exons (coding sequences) & introns (intervening sequences). The transcription of
a gene is regulated by a promoter region, enhancer region, etc. The sequence of
nucleotides in a gene determines the sequence of amino acids in a specific protein. Three
consecutive nucleotides form a code word or codon. Each codon signifies a single amino
acid. Since the number of condons (64) outnumbers the number of amino acids (20), most
amino acids are specified by more than 1 condon, each of which is completely specific.
To translate its genetic information into a protein, a segment of DNA (i.e. a gene) is first
transcribed into mRNA. The mRNA contains a sequence of nucleotides that
is complementary to the nucleotides of the DNA. Each DNA triplet codon is converted into a
corresponding RNA triplet codon. Then each mRNA codon codes for a specific amino acid.
Hence, the sequences of the RNA codons is translated into a sequence of amino acids (i.e.
protein). Therefore, the sequence of the amino acids in the protein is determined by the
sequence of the codons in the mRNA which in turn is determined by the sequence of
nucleotides in the DNA.

In summary, the primary sequence of bases in the coding regions of DNA determines the
sequence of amino acids in the protein. Hence, any alteration in the sequence of bases in
the normal gene causes an alteration of the protein at a specific point in its sequence. Such
alteration is called mutation & is the basis of genetic diseases.
Genetic information is transmitted to the daughter cells under two circumstances:

1. Somatic cells divide by mitosis, allowing the diploid (2n) genome to replicate itself
completely in conjunction with cell division.

2. Germ cells (sperm & ova) undergo meiosis a process that enables the reduction of the
diploid (2n) set of chromosomes to the haploid state (1n).When the egg is fertilized by
the sperm, the 2 haploid sets are combined, thereby restoring the diploid state in the

- Hereditary (familial) disorders are disorders derived from ones parents.
- Congenital means born with. It may be genetic, for example Downs syndrome. Or it
may not be genetic, for example congenital syphilis. Not all genetic diseases are
congenital, for example patients with Huntingtons disease begin to manifest their
disease in the 3
or 4
- Genotype means the genetic constitution (genome).
- Phenotype means the observed biochemical, physiological, & morphological
characteristics of an individual as determined by his/her genotype & the environment in
which it is expressed.
- Allele means one of the alternative versions of a gene that may occupy a given locus.
- Gene, as already stated, is the portion of DNA that codes for a protein.

III. Mutations

- are the bases of genetic diseases.
- are defined as permanent changes in the primary nucleotide sequence of DNA
regardless of its functional significance.
- occur spontaneously during cell division or are caused by mutagens such as radiation,
viruses, & chemicals.
- can occur in germ line cells (sperm or oocytes) or in somatic cells or during
embryogenesis. Germline mutations can be passed from one generation to the next &
thus cause inherited disease. Somatic mutations do not cause hereditary disease but

they may cause cancer (because they confer a growth advantage to cells) & some
congenital malformations. Mutations that occur during development (embryogenesis)
lead to mosaicism. Mosaicism is a situation in which tissues are composed of cells with
different genetic constitutions. If the germ line is mosaic, a mutation can be transmitted
to some progeny but not others. This can sometimes lead to confusion in assessing the
patterns of inheritance.
- affect the various levels of protein synthesis.
- can be classified into the following three categories based on the extent of the genetic

2. Genome mutations
- are due to chromosome missegregation.
- are gain or loss of one or more whole chromosomes.
- are exemplified by aneuploidy & polyploidy.
- are often incompatible with survival.

3. Chromosome mutations
- are due to rearrangement of genetic material in a chromosome which results in structural
changes in the chromosome.
- can be seen by the microscope.
- are exemplified by translocations.
- are infrequently transmitted because most are incompatible with survival (like genome

4. Gene mutations
- cause most of the hereditary diseases.
- are submicroscopic (i.e. cannot be seen by the microscope).
- may affect a single base (more common) or they may affect a larger portion of a

- have the following types:
A. Single base pair change (Point Mutation)
B. Deletions & Insertions
C. Expansions of repeat sequences

Each of these types are discussed below.

A. Point mutation (Single base pair change)
- is the substitution of one base for another.
- includes the following types:-
1. Silent mutations
2. Missense mutations
3. Nonsense mutations

1. Silent (Synonymous) mutation.
The genetic code is redundant (i.e. there is more than one codon for most amino acids) &
therefore a change in one base may result in no change in the amino acid sequence of the
protein. The base replacement does not lead to a change in the amino acid but only to the
substitution of a different codon for the same amino acid. For example, the change of the
codon UUU which codes for phenylalanine to UUC (i.e. the replacement of U by C) is a
silent mutation because the new codon (UUC) also codes the same amino acid

2. Missense mutations
- changes the codon for one amino acid to the codon for another amino acid.
- is exemplified by the mutation which causes sickle cell anemia.

Hemoglobin is composed of a heme, two -globin polypeptide chains, & two -globin
polypeptide chains. In normal individuals, the codon GAG codes for glutamic acid in the 6

position of the -globin polypeptide chain. But in sickle cell anemia this codon is changed to
GUG which codes valine. Hence, as a result of this single base substitution, valine
substitutes glutamic acid in the -globin chain. This amino acid substitution alters the
physicochemical properties of hemoglobin, which is now called Hemoglobin S. This leads to
sickle cell anemia.

3. Nonsense mutation
- changes the codon for an amino acid to a stop codon, leading to termination of translation
of the mRNA transcript & a truncated protein.
- is exemplified by the mutation which causes
thalassemia. In this, a substitution of U
for C in the codon 39 of the globin chain of hemoglobin (i.e. the change of CAG to
UAG) converts the codon for glutamine to a stop codon. This results in premature
termination of the globin gene translation. I.e. protein synthesis stops at the 38

acid. This results in short peptide which is rapidly degraded leading to the absence of -
globin chains. This leads to

B. Deletions & insertions
- can occur within coding sequences or within noncoding sequences.
i. Deletions & insertions of one or two bases within coding sequences lead to
frameshift mutations because they alter the reading frame of the triplet genetic code in
the mRNA so that every codon distal to the mutation in the same gene is read in the
wrong frame. This leads to altered amino acid sequence & usually premature
termination of the peptide chain because of the occurrence of a termination codon in the
altered reading frame.
ii. Deletion or insertion of three or a multiple of three base pairs within coding
sequences does not cause frameshift mutation, instead it results in abnormal protein
missing one or more amino acid.
iii. Deletions affecting the promoter/enhancer sequences (i.e. in the noncoding
regions) leads to promoter / enhancer mutations.

C. Expansion of repeat sequences (trinucleotide repeat mutations)
- show expansion of a sequence of 3 nucleotides. Normally, 3 nucleotides are repeated
20-30 times. Trinucleotide repeat mutation is when there is expansion of these normally
repeated sequences to more than 100 repeats.
- The mechanism leading to an increase in the number of repeats is not clear. It is also
not clear how the increase leads to disease.
- cause myotonic dystrophy, Huntingtons disease, fragile X syndrome, etcare not stable
(i.e. they are dynamic) (i.e. the degree of amplification increases during gametogenesis).
This leads to the phenomenon of anticipation (i.e. the disease worsens during the
subsequent generations).

- Mutations can interfere with normal protein synthesis at various levels:-
1. Promoter/enhancer mutations No transcription/ increased transcription No
protein/increased protein.
2. Missense mutation Abnormal protein with a different amino acid A protein altered
with function or loss of function
3. Nonsense mutation Affects translation Truncated protein Rapidly degraded
protein Absence of the protein.

Many different proteins are synthesized in each cell of the body. These proteins include
enzymes & structural components responsible for all the developmental & metabolic
processes of an organism. Mutation can result in abnormality in any of these protiens.
Mutation Abnormal protein/No protein/ Increased protein Abnormal metabolic
processes Tissue injury Genetic diseases.
IV. Categories of genetic diseases
Genetic diseases generally fall into one of the following 4 categories:
a. Mendelian disorders
b. Chromosomal disorders
c. Multifactorial disorders
d. Single gene diseases with nonclassic patterns of inheritance.
Each of these categories is discussed below.
V. Mendelian disorders
- Each medelian disorder is caused by a single mutant gene.
affects transcription, mRNA processing, or translation
abnormal protein or decreased protein
may affect any type of protein Disease.
- show the classic mendelian patterns of inheritance.
- are also called monogenic mendelian disorders.
- are uncommon.
- can be classified into the following based on their patterns of inheritance:
1. Autosomal dominant inheritance
2. Autosomal recessive inheritance
3. X-linked recessive inheritance

The mode of inheritance for a given phenotypic trait/disease is determined by pedigree
analysis in which all affected & unaffected individuals in the family are recorded in a
pedigree using standard symbols & indicating the sex, the generation, & biologic
relationship among the family members. In all mendelian disorders, the distribution of the
parental alleles to their offspring depends on the combination of the alleles present in the

1. Autosomal dominant disorders
- will be discussed under the following 4 headings:-
a. The criteria for autosomal inheritance
b. Additional features of autosomal dominant disorders
c. Pathogenesis
d. Clinical examples
- Dominant implies that the disease allele needs to be present only in a single copy (as in
the heterozygote) to result in the phenotype.

a. The criteria of autosomal inheritance include:
i. The transmission of the trait is from generation to generation without skipping. In a
typical dominant pedigree, there can be many affected family members in each
ii. Except for new mutation, every affected child will have an affected parent Some
patients do not have affected parents because the disease in such cases is due to new
mutations in the sperm/ovum from which the patients were derived. New germ line
mutations occur more frequently in fathers of advanced age.
Iii. In the mating of an affected heterozygote to a normal homozygote (the usual
situation), each child has a 50% chance to inherit the abnormal allele & be affected & a
50 % chance inherit the normal allele. See Fig.1 below.
iv. The 2 sexes are affected in equal numbers (because the defective gene resides on
one of the 22 autosomes (i.e. nonsex chromosomes). The exceptions to this rule are
the sex-limited disorders such as breast & ovarian cancers in females & familial male
precocious puberty in boys.

Heterozygous male

Homozygous normal female

Normal male

Heterozygous female

Phenotypically affected

Fig 6.2. The pedigree for autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance. This figure shows the
pedigree for a normal female parent & an affected male parent & their four children.
Vertical distribution of the condition through successive generations occurs when the
trait does not impair reproductive capacity.

b. Additional features of autosomal dominant disorders
Each of the following may alter the idealized dominant pedigree (& they should be
considered to provide the most accurate counselling):-
i. Autosomal dominant disorders can sometimes be caused by new mutations. New
mutations may give rise to an isolated case of a dominant disorder. New mutations are
more often seen with diseases that are so severe that people who are affected by them
are less likely to reproduce than normal. For example, the majority of cases of
achondroplasia are the results of new mutations.
ii. Autosomal dominant disorders can show reduced penetrance (i.e. some individuals
inherit the mutant gene but are phenotypically normal). Penetrance is the probability of
expressing the phenotype given a defined genotype. Penetrance is expressed as the
percentage of individuals who have the mutant allele & are actually phenotypically
affected. For example, 25% penetrance indicates that 25% of those who have the gene

express the trait. Penetrance can be complete or incomplete. Reduced (incomplete)
penetrance is when the frequency of expression of a genotype is < 100%.
Nonpenetrance is the situation in which the mutant allele is inherited but not expressed.
iii. Autosomal dominant disorders commonly show variable expressivity.Variable
expressivity is the ability of the same genetic mutation to cause a phenotypic spectrum.
It is when the trait is seen in all individuals carrying the mutant gene but is expressed
differently among individuals. For example, some patients with neurofibromatosis type 1
(which is an autosomal dominant disorder) have only brownish spots (caf au lait spots)
on their skin whereas other patients with the same disease have multiple skin tumors &
skeletal deformities. Therefore, neurofibromatosis is said to show variable expressivity.
Variable expressivity most likely results from the effects of other genes or environmental
factors that modify the phenotypic expression of the mutant allele. For example,
individuals with familial hypercholesterolemia who take cholesterol-rich diet have a
higher risk of manifesting with atherosclerosis than those individuals with
hypercholesterolemia & who take low cholesterol diet. Hence, the variable expressivity in
this case is brought about by the influence of an environmental factor (i.e. the diet).In
general, variable expressivity & reduced penetrance can modify the clinical picture of
autosomal dominant disorders.

c. Pathogenesis of autosomal dominant disorders

Autosomal dominant disorders are caused by 2 types of mutations:
1. Loss of function mutations
2. Gain of function mutations

1. Loss of function mutations cause autosomal dominant disorders when they result in
inactive or decreased amount of regulatory proteins (e.g. cell membrane receptors
such as LDL receptor), or structural proteins (e.g. collagen, fibrillin, spectrin,

A 50% reduction in the levels of such nonenzyme proteins results in an abnormal
phenotype (i.e. the heterozygote, who produces this much amount, will manifest the
disorder). This can sometimes be explained by the dominant negative effect of the mutant
allele (i.e. product of the mutant allele impairs the function of the product of the normal

2. Gain of function mutations are much less common than loss of function mutations. In
such cases, the mutant gene produces a toxic protein (i.e. the protein will have a new
toxic function). This is exemplified by Huntington disease. Gain of function mutations
almost always have autosomal dominant pattern.

d. Clinical examples of autosomal dominant disorders:

o Marfan syndrome*
o Some variants of Ehlers Danlos syndrome
o Osteogenesis imperfecta
o Achondroplasia
o Huntington disease
o Neurofibromatosis*
o Tuberous sclerosis
o Myotonic dystrophy
o Familial hypercholesterolemia*
o Hereditary spherocytosis
o Familial polyposis coli
o Polycystic kidney disease
* Only these are briefly described here.

Marfan syndrome
- is a defect of connective tissue characterized by faulty scaffolding.
- is caused by mutations of FBN1 gene Abnormal fibrillin (which is a structural protein)
No normal microfibrils in the extracellular matrix No scaffolding on which tropoelastin
is deposited to form elastic fibers Marfans syndrome.Microfibrils are normally
abundant in the aorta, ligaments, & ciliary zonules of the lens where they support the
lens. Hence, Marfan syndrome (in which there is deficiency of normal fibrillin &
microfibrils) mainly involves these tissues.
- is characterized by defects in skeletal, visual, & cardiovascular structures:-
i. Patients are tall & thin with abnormally long legs & arms, spider like fingers
(arachnodactyly), hyperextensible joints.
ii. Dislocation of the ocular lens (Ectopia lentis) is frequent.

iii. Cardiovascular changes include:
a. Mitral valve prolapse due to loss of connective tissue support in the
mitral valve leaflets.
b. Dilatation of the ascending aorta due to cystic medionecrosis (lack of
medial support).Dilatation of the aortic valve ring & the root of the aorta
Aortic regurgitation.
c. Dissecting aneurysm of the aorta due to medial necrosis & intimal tear.

Familial hypercholesterolemia
- is possibly the most frequent mendelian disorder
- is caused by mutation of the gene for LDL (low density lipoprotein) receptor
Decreased functional LDL receptor Increased plasma cholesterol Premature
atherosclerosis Increased risk of myocardial infarction & other complications of
atherosclerosis/ The occurrence of xanthomas (which are raised yellow lesions filled
with lipid-laden macrophages in the skin & tendons).
- is best understood by knowing the normal process of cholesterol metabolism &
transport which is briefly described below.7% of the bodys cholesterol circulates in
the plasma, predominantly in the form of LDL. The level of plasma cholesterol is
influenced by its synthesis & catabolism. The liver plays an important role in both
these processes. The following flow chart illustrates the normal cholesterol
metabolism. Abbreviations used in this flow chart
- TG = Triglyceride VLDL = Very Low Density Lipoprotein = has a lot of triglyceride
(TG), very little cholesterol, & 3 apoproteins. IDL = Intermediate Density
Lipoprotein= has less TG & more cholesterol than VLDL & also has 2
apoproteins.LDL = Low Density Lipoprotein = has much more cholesterol than IDL.

Liver cell Secrets VLDL

VLDL is transported to the capillaries of adipose tissue or muscle which contain lipoprotein
lipase. The lipoprotein lipase degrades the VLDL into TG & IDL.
a. The TG is stored in fat cells or is used for energy in skeletal muscle.
b. The IDL follows 2 pathways:-
i. 50% of plasma IDL is cleared by the liver. The liver uses LDL receptors to remove
plasma IDL.
ii. The rest of IDL is converted to plasma LDL (which is cholesterol-rich).Plasma LDL is
removed by the following 2 pathways:-

1. The scavenger receptor pathway:- In which oxidized LDL or acetylated LDL is removed
by a scavenger receptor on the cells of the mononuclear phagocyte system, &
2. Hepatic clearance:- 70% of plasma LDL is removed by the liver (because LDL binds
with LDL receptors which are concentrated in certain regions ( called the coated pits)
of the cell membrane of the hepatocyte). Then, the coated vesicles containing the bound
LDL fuse with the lysosomes. in the lysosomes, LDL is degraded into free cholesterol
which enters the cytoplasm.

There, cholesterol does the following things:-
i.It is used for the synthesis of cell membrane & bile acids.
ii. It stimulates storage of excess cholesterol
iii. It inhibits the synthesis of LDLreceptors thus protects the cell from excessive
accumulation of cholesterol.
Familial hypercholesterolemia
- is caused by different types of mutations in the gene for LDL receptor No functional
LDL receptor Leads to:-
i. Impaired plasma LDL clearance. This leads to the accumulation of LDL in plasma
(i.e. hypercholesterolemia).
ii. Impaired IDL uptake by the liver ( because IDL uses hepatic LDL receptors for this
uptake). Diversion of a greater proportion of plasma IDL into the precursor pool
for plasma LDL. Hypercholesterolemia.
iii. Increased scavenger receptor mediated clearance of LDL into the cells of the
mononuclear phagocyte system & possibly the vascular walls. This leads to
xanthomas & contributes to premature atherosclerosis.
The hypercholesterolemia & the accumulation of LDL inside macrophages produced by the
above mechanisms lead to premature atherosclerosis & xanthomas.
This knowledge of the pathogenesis of familial hypercholesterolemia has led to a logical
discovery of its treatment. We have said that the basic problem in this disease is absence of
LDL receptors. Hence, the logical treatment is to increase the number of LDL receptors. (i.e.
to remove the basic problem). This can be done by:-
1. Statins
- are drugs which inhibit hepatic HMG CoA reductase Inhibits intracellular
cholesterol synthesis leads to greater synthesis of LDL receptors (See the normal
cholesterol metabolism above)
2. Gene therapy (under investigation)
- by giving normal LDL receptor genes via a viral vector.

This illustrates that knowing the pathogenesis of diseases greatly helps not only in
understanding their morphologic & clinical features but also in the logical discovery of their

- is a familial neoplasm. Familial neoplasms have neoplasm-causing mutations ransmitted
through the germ line. Familial neoplasms account for about 5% of all cancers & they
are mendelian disorders. They are often inherited in autosomal dominant pattern with
few exceptions. They are caused by mutations that affect proteins which regulate cell
growth. And they are exemplified by neurofibromatosis types 1 & 2. It should be noted
that most cancers are not familial & these non-familial cancers are caused by mutations
of tumor-suppressor genes, proto-oncogenes, & apoptosis- regulating genes in somatic
cells. Hence, these mutations are not passed in the germ line. Therefore, most cancers
are not mendelian disorders i.e. they are sporadic or nonfamilial disorders. Here,
neurofibromatosis which is a mendelian neoplasm is discussed.

1. Neurofibromatosis type 1
- was previously called von Recklinghausen disease.
- has autosomal dominant transmission in 50% of cases. (The rest 50% are due to new
- has extremely variable expressivity but the penetrance is 100%.
- is due to a mutation in the NF1 gene (which is a tumor-suppressor gene).
- mainly shows neurofibromas in the skin & other locations, caf au lait spots (i.e. light
brown skin pigmentations), & pigmented iris hamartomas (Lisch nodules). The benign
neurofibromas can sometimes become malignant.
- may also show skeletal disorders such as scoliosis & bone cysts & increased incidence
of other tumors especially pheochromocytoma & malignancies such as Wilms tumor,
rhabdomyosarcoma, & leukaemia.

2. Neurofibromatosis type 2
- was in the past called acoustic neurofibromatosis.
- is much less common than neurofibromatosis type 1.
- is an autosomal dominant disorder.
- is due to a mutation of the NF-2 gene ( which is a tumor suppressor gene)
- shows bilateral acoustic schwannomas, multiple meningiomas, & gliomas (typically
ependymomas of the spinal cord).

Autosomal recessive disorders
- will be discussed under the following headings:-
a. Criteria
b. Additional features
c. Pathogenesis
d. Clinical examples

In autosomal recessive disorders, the phenotype is usually observed only in the
homozygote. The typical pedigree shows affected male & female siblings with normal
parents & offspring. Recessive inheritance is suspected when parents are consanguineous;
it is considered proven when the corresponding enzyme levels are low or absent in affected
individuals & are at half normal values in both parents.
a. Criteria
i. If the trait is rare, parents & relatives other than siblings are usually normal
ii. In the mating of 2 phenotypically normal heterozygotes, the segregation frequency
with each pregnancy is 25% homozygous normal, 50% heterozygous normal, &
25% homozygous affected. See Fig. 2 below.
iii. All children of two affected parents are affected.
iv. Both sexes are affected in equal numbers
v. If the trait is rare in the population, the probability of parenta consanguinity is

Fig 6.3. Autosomal recessive pattern. This diagram shows the pedigree for 2 heterozygous
parents & their 4 children. Only siblings are affected. Vertical distribution of affected
individuals is not usually seen. Horizontal distribution & consanguinity are seen in a
multiplex pedigree. (Note: This is not a multiplex pedigree). See the legend of Fig. 1.

b. Additional features
i.Autosomal recessive disorders show more uniform expression of the trait than
autosomal dominant disorders. (i.e. they dont show variable expressivity).

ii. They commonly show complete penetrance.
iii. They frequently show signs & symptoms early in life, whereas many autosomal
dominant disorders have delayed onset e.g. Huntington disease clinically manifests for
the first time during adulthood.

c. Pathogenesis
Many autosomal recessive disorders are caused by loss of function mutations which
result in decreased enzyme proteins.
Homozygotes No normal enzyme Disease.
Heterozygotes Equal amounts of normal & defective enzymesCells with half the normal
amount of the enzyme function normally No disease.

d. Clinical examples include:-
- Sickle cell anemia
- Thalassemias
- Congenital adrenal hyperplasia
- Cystic fibrosis Wilson disease
- HemochromatosisMendelian disorders associated with enzyme defects:*
o Phenylketonuria
o Galactosemia
o Homocystinuria
o Lysosomal storage diseases
o Alpha 1 antitrypsin deficiency
o Glycogen storage disease
* These will be discussed further.
- Mendelian disorders associated with enzyme defects.
- have mutations decreased amount of a normal enzyme or abnormal enzyme with
decreased activity Metabolic block Consequences Disease.
- show autosomal recessive pattern of inheritance because half the normal amount of
enzyme is enough for normal function. Hence, heterozygotes (who produce this
amount) do not manifest the disease. I.e. the inheritance is autosomal recessive.
- is illustrated by the following model of a metabolic pathway:- Substrate

Enzyme 1 Intermediate 1 Enzyme 2Intermediate 2 M1 M2 (Minor pathway
products) Enzyme 3 Final product If an enzyme of the above pathway is defective, then
the consequences may be:
1. Accumulation of the substrate, &/or one or both of the intermediates, & the products of
the minor pathway depending on the level of the block. These substances may be toxic in
high concentrations & result in tissue damage. This mechanism occurs in the following
Lysosomal storage diseases

2. Decreased amount of the final end product.
This is exemplified by albinism.

3. Failure to inactivate a toxic substrate. E.g. Hereditary alpha -1 antitrypsin deficiency.

Mendelian disorders associated with enzyme defects include most inborn errors of
metabolism such as:
o Lysosomal storage diseases (E.g. Gaucher disease)
o Phenylketonuria
o Severe combined immunodeficiency disease
o Alpha 1 antitrypsin deficiency
o Albinism
o Lesch Nyhan syndrome

In order to illustrate the basic principles of this category, only the first two disorders from the
above list are discussed below in moderate depth.

1. Lysosomal storage diseases
- result from lack of any protein essential for the normal function of lysosomes.
Lysosomes are intracellular organelles used for degrading a variety of complex
substrates. They do so by means of a variety of enzymes. The following figure
compares the normal lysosomal degradation pathway with that of lysosomal storage
disease.Complex substrate
Normal lysosomal degradation \ Lysosomal enzyme deficiency
pathway:- \ ( i.e. lysosomal storage disease):-
Enzyme A \
\ Enzyme A

Intermediate 1 Intermediate 1

Enzyme B Enzyme B

Intermediate 2 Intermediate 2

Enzyme C Enzyme C is absent

Small soluble end products No soluble end product
Stored nonmetabolized complex substrates & intermediate products.

Fig. 6. 4. Normal lysosomal degradation Vs lysosomal storage diseases.

Lysosomal storage diseases can be divided into the following subgroups based on the
nature of the accumulated substance:
a. Sphingolipidoses
e.g. Tay-Sachs disease in which there is deficiency of the alpha subunit of the enzyme
hexosaminidase leading to the accumulation of GM2 gangliosides.
b. Sulfatidoses e.g. 1. Gaucher disease e.g. 2. Niemann-Pick disease types A & B (have
deficiency of sphingomyelinase resulting in the accumulation of sphingomyelin).
c. Muopolysacharidoses (MPS)
d. Mucolipidoses (ML)
e. Type 2 glycogenosis ( Pompe disease)
f. etc

The organs affected in lysosomal storage diseases (i.e. the distribution of the stored
material) are determined by the following 2 factors:
i. The site where most of the material to be degraded is found.
E.g.1. Brain is rich in gangliosides, hence defective degradation of gangliosides as in
Tay-Sachs disease results in the storage of gangliosides within neurons leading to
neurologic symptoms. E.g.2. Mucopolysaccharides are widely distributed in the body.
Hence, mucopolysacharidoses (i.e. defects in the degradation of polysaccharides) affect
virtually any organ.
ii. The location where most of the degradation normally occurs.
Organs rich in phagocytic cells such as the spleen & liver are frequently enlarged in
several forms of lysosomal storage diseases. This is because cells of the mononuclear
phagocytic system are rich in lysosomes & are involved in the degradation of a variety of
From among the various types of lysosomal storage diseases listed above, only Gaucher
disease is discussed here to illustrate the basic principles of lysosomal storage diseases.

Gaucher disease
- is the most common lysosomal storage disorder.
- is a disorder of lipid metabolism caused by mutations in the gene encoding
glucocerebrosidase. Deficiency of glucocerebrosidase Accumulation of
glucocerebroside mainly in the cells of the mononuclear phagocyte system &
sometimes in the central nervous system. Glucocerebrosides are continually formed
from the catabolism of glycolipids derived mainly from the cell membranes of old red
blood cells & white blood cells.
- morphologically shows Gaucher cells (distended phagocytic cells with a distinctive
wrinkled tissue paper cytoplasmic appearance).
- - has 3 clinical subtypes : Type I (chronic nonneuronopathic), Type II ( acute
neuronopathic) , & Type III (Juvenile).

Type I (Chronic non-neuronopathic form) (Adult Gaucher disease):-
- accounts for 99% of the cases.
- is found mainly in European Jews.
- does not involve the brain.
- shows accumulation of gluccocerebrosides only in the cells of the mononuclear
phagocytic system throughout the body.

- Hence, it shows Gaucher cells in the spleen, liver, lymph nodes, & bone marrow.
- clinically manifests by
o SplenomegalyHypersplenismPancytopenia.
o Hepatomegaly
o Generalized lymphadenopathy
o Pathologic fractures & bone pain due to erosion of the bone.
o First appearance of sings & symptoms in adult life.
o Progressive disease which is compatible with long life.

Phenylketonuria (PKU)
- is caused by mutation of the phenylalanine hydroxylase gene Phenylalanine
hydroxylase deficiency Failure of conversion of phenylalanine to tyrosine in the liver
High serum concentration of phenylalanine which is neurotoxic Progressive

In addition the minor pathways of phenylalanine metabolism produce phenyl pyruvic acid
(phenylketone) & phenyl acetic acid which are excreted via the urine.

- is clinically characterized by:
Progressive mental deterioration usually pronounced by age 1.
Hyperactivity & other neurologic abnormalities.
Decreased pigmentation of hair, eyes, & skin. (Children are characteristically blond
& blue-eyed).
Mousy body odour from phenylacetic acid in urine & sweat.
- can be successfully treated by a phenylalaninefree diet.
- Screening tests for serum phenylalanine or urinary catabolites are ordinarily performed
on the 3
or 4
day of life . But this is not currently done in Ethiopia.

3. X-linked recessive inheritance
All sex-linked disorders are X-linked. There is no Y-liked inheritance because Y-linked
mutations result in infertility. X-linked disorders can be either recessive (almost all) or
dominant (rare).

X-linked recessive inheritance:-
- is suspected when several male relatives in the female line of the family are affected.
a. Criteria:-
i. In the mating of a heterozygous carrier female parent & a normal male parent (the most
frequent setting), the sons are hemizygous affected 50% of the time (i.e. the sons have
50% chance of being affected) & the daughters are normal heterozygous carriers 50% of
the time & normal homozygotes 50% of the time. See Fig.3 below.
ii. Affected daughters are produced by matings of heterozygous females with affected
iii. No male-to-male (i.e. father-to-son) transmission of the trait (in all sex-linked
inheritance). This is because a male contributes his Y chromosome to his son & does
not contribute an X-chromosome to his son. On the other hand, since a male contributes
his sole X-chromosome to each daughter, all daughters of a male with an X-linked
disorder will inherit the mutant allele. All female offspring of affected males are carriers if
the mother is normal.

Fig.6.5. X-linked recessive pattern.

This figure shows an extended pedigree of an X-linked recessive disorder in which the male
parents (in both generations) are normal & the female parents carriers. In contrast to the
vertical distribution in dominant traits (parents & children affected) & the horizontal
distribution in autosomal recessive traits (sibs affected), the pedigree pattern in X linked
recessive traits tends to be oblique, i.e. the trait manifests in the maternal uncles of affected
males & in male cousins who are descended from the mothers sisters who are carriers.

b. Pathogenesis of X-linked recessive disorders

The genes responsible for X-linked disorders are located on the X-chromosome, & the
clinical risks are different for the 2 sexes.

Since a female has 2 X chromosomes, she may be either homozygous or heterozygous for
a mutant gene, & the mutant allele may demonstrate either dominant or recessive

The homozygous female (i.e. having the mutation in both the X chromosomes) will express
the full phenotypic change of the disease
Clinical expression of X-linked recessive disorders in heterozygous females is often variable
& is influenced by the normal random X-chromosome inactivation (i.e. lyonization) (See
below). Normally, one of the two X-chromosomes in females is randomly inactivated.
Therefore, in heterozygous females carrying X-linked recessive mutations, some cells have
one active normal X chromosome & other cells have an active abnormal X chromosome
containing the mutant allele. I.e. such females have a variable proportion of cells in which
the mutant X-chromosome is active. Often the mutant allele is activated in only some of the
cells. Therefore, the heterozygous female expresses the disorder partially & with less
severity than hemizygous men. I.e. she usually does not express the full phenotypic change.
E.g. G6PD deficiency. Very rarely, the mutant allele may be activated in most cells & this
results in full expression of a heterozygous X-linked recessive condition in the female.
In males, the Y chromosome is not homologous to the X-chromosome. So mutant genes on
the X are not paired with alleles on the Y. The male is, therefore, said to be hemizygous (&
not heterozygous) for the X-linked mutant genes. Males have only oner X-chromosome,
so they will clinically show the full phenotype of X-linked recessive diseases,
regardless of whether the mutation produces a recessive or dominant allele in the
female. Thus, the terms X-linked dominant or X-linked recessive refer only to the expression
of the mutations in women.

c. Clinical examples of X-linked recessive disorders include:
- Hemophilia A & B
- Chronic granulomatous disease of childhood
- Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency
- Agammaglobulinemia
- Wiskott -Aldrich syndrome

- Diabetes insipidus
- Lesch-Nyhan syndrome
- Fragile X syndrome
- Duchenne muscular dystrophy

X-linked dominant inheritance
- is a rare variant of X-linked inheritance.
- is when heterozygous females & hemizygous males phenotypically manifest the
- is caused by dominant disease alleles on the X-chromosome.
- is transmitted by an affected heterozygous female to half her sons & half her daughters.
- is transmitted by an affected male parent to all his daughters but none of his sons, if the
female parent is unaffected.
- is exemplified by vitamin D-resistant rickets.

Mitochondrial inheritance
- is mediated by maternally transmitted mitochondrial genes, which are inherited
exclusively by maternal transmission.
- is a rare form of inheritance mentioned here just for the sake of completeness.

VII. Chromosomal disorders (Cytogenetic disorders)

- are caused by chromosome & genome mutations ( i.e. abnormal structure & number of
chromosomes respectively).
- are not uncommon. They are found in 50% of early spontaneous abortuses, in 5% of
stillbirths, & in 0.5 -1% of live born infants.
- may, therefore, be suspected in the following clinical situations:
o Spontaneous abortion
o Stillbirth
o Abnormal live births
o Infertile couple

The following subtopics will be discussed below:
A. Normal karyotype
- Chromosome identification & nomenclature
B. Types of chromosomal abnormalities

C. Abnormalities of autosomal chromosomes
E.g. Down syndrome
D. Abnormalities of sex chromosomes
E.g. 1. Klinefelter syndrome
E.g. 2. Turner syndrome

A. The normal karyotype
Chromosome classification & nomenclature:
Karyotype is the chromosome constitution of an individual. The term is also used for a
photomicrograph of the chromosomes of an individual arranged in the standard
classification (i.e. metaphase chromosomes arranged in order of decreasing length).
Karyotyping means the process of preparing such a photomicrograph. I.e. it is the study of
chromosomes. Karyotyping uses many types of techniques of which G-banding is the most
common procedure.

G-banding has the following steps:-
- Arrest dividing cells in metaphase by using colchicine.
- Stain the metaphase chromosomes using Giemsa stain, hence thename G-
banding.The metaphase chromosomes will show alternating dark staining & light-
staining bands. The dark bands are by convention called G bands, & the light bands are
R bands. About 400 -800 dark & light bands can be seen in a haploid set of
chromosomes using G banding.
- Each chromosome can be identified based on its banding pattern & length. The
chromosome pairs are arranged in decreasing order of their length. And the first
chromosome in such an arrangement is called chromosome 1, the 2
chromosome is
called chromosome 2, etc. up to chromosome 23. The banding can also identify
breakpoints & other chromosomal alterations.
Metaphase chromosomes are divided longitudinally into 2 sister chromatids held together at
the centromere, which delineates the chromosome into a short arm (p) & a long arm (q).

Fig. 6.6. A pair of chromosomes.

The position of the centromere is used in the morphologic description of a chromosome:
Metacentric chromosomes have more central centromeres.
Acrocentric chromosomes have a centromere that is very close to one end. E.g.
chromosomes 13 & 21.

In a banded karyotype, each arm of the chromosome is divided into 2 or more regions. The
regions are numbered e.g. 1, 2, and 3 from the centromere progressing to the telomere.
Each region is further subdivided into bands & sub bands which are also similarly
numbered. Thus, Xq22.1 refers to a segment located on the long arm of the X chromosome
in region 2 band 2, sub band 1. The following figure illustrates this.

Fig. 6.7. Nomenclature of a chromosome showing the division of the long arm (q) of the
chromosome into regions 1 & 2. Region 2 is further subdivided into bands 1 & 2.
Band 2 is further subdivided into sub bands 1 & 2. Even though not shown in this
figure, the other bands of this q arm & the p arm are similarly divided & numbered.

Karyotypes are usually described using a shorthand system of notations. The following
order is used to describe karyotypes:
First the total number of chromosomes is given.
Second the sex chromosome constitution is given.
Finally any abnormality is described.
E.g. 1. A normal female karyotype is 46,XX. E.g. 2. A female with trisomy 21 is
described as 47,XX,+21.

B. Types of chromosomal anomalies

- Chromosomal anomalies may be numerical or structural.
1. Numerical anomalies can result in either aneuploidy or polyploidy.
i. Aneuploidy
- is addition or loss of 1 or rarely 2 chromosomes.

ii. Polyploidy
- is the addition of complete haploid sets of chromosomes.
2. Structural anomalies are rearrangements of genetic material within or between
chromosomes. These may be either genetically balanced or unbalanced. In balanced
structural anomalies, there is no change in the amount of essential genetic material
whereas in the unbalanced ones there is a gain or loss of essential chromosome

1. Numerical anomalies

a. Aneuploidy
- is a chromosome number that is not an exact multiple of 23 (i.e. the normal haploid
number). The most common forms of aneuploidy are trisomy & monosomy. Trisomy is
the presence of 3 copies of a particular chromosome instead of the normal 2 copies.
I.e. it is the presence of an extra chromosome. Monosomy is the presence of only one
copy of a particular chromosome instead of the normal pair. I.e. it is the absence of a
single chromosome.
- is caused most often by an addition or loss of 1 or 2 chromosomes. This change may
result from anaphase lag or nondisjunction.

i. Anaphase lag
- During meiosis or mitosis, one chromosome lags behind & is left out of the cell nucleus.
This results in one normal cell & one cell with monosomy.
ii. Nondisjunction
- is the failure of chromosomes to separate during meiosis or mitosis. The following figure
illustrates meiotic nondisjunction.

Fig.6.8. (A) Normal disjunction of a chromosome pair during meiosis I & II. (B) In meiosis I
nondisjunction, the homologous chromosomes fail to segregate into the 2 daughter
cells. (C) In meiosis II nondisjunction, the sister chromatids fail to segregate. The
chromosome number in the gametes, which in humans is 23, is denoted by n. As
shown in this figure both (B) & (C) produce gametes that are disomic or nullisomic for
a specific chromosome. And fertilization of such gametes results in trisomic or
monosomic zygotes (i.e. aneuploid zygotes). Meiotic nondisjunction is the most
common cause of aneuploidy. It is responsible for disorders such as trisomy 21, the
most common form of Down syndrome.

Nondisjunction can also occur in a mitotic division of somatic cells after the formation of the
zygote. Mitotic nondisjunction is the failure of sister chromatids to segregate at anaphase
(like the meiosis II error shown above). If mitotic nondisjunction occurs at an early stage of
embryonic development, then clinically significant mosaicism may result. See the following

Fig.6.9. Mitotic nondisjunction at an early stage of development of an embryo.

The mitotic nondisjunction occurred in one of cells & resulted in a trisomic cell. All the
descendants of this trisomic cell will also be trisomic. Also note that most of the cells
undergo normal mitosis resulting in normal cells. Therefore, an individual formed from such
an embryo will have 2 populations of cells a trisomic cell population & a normal cell
population. Such an individual is called a mosaic. And the clinical appearance of such an
individual depends on the proportion of trisomic cells. Anyway, the clinical feature is less
severe than that of an individual in whom all the cells are trisomic.
In general, monosomies & trisomies of the sex chromosomes are compatible with life &
usually cause phenotypic abnormalities. But monosomies & trisomies of the autosomal
chromosomes are not well tolerated. I.e. monosomies of autosomal chromosomes are
lethal to the conceptus. And trisomies of all autosomal chromosomes except chromosomes
13, 18, & 21 cause abortion or early death. However, trisomies of the autosomal
chromosomes, 13, 18, & 21 permit survival with phenotypic abnormalities.

b. Polyploidy
- is a chromosome number that is a multiple greater than 2 of the haploid number. Triploidy
is 3x the haploid number (i.e.69 chromosomes).Tetraploidy is 4x.
- is rarely compatible with life & usually results in spontaneous abortion.

2. Structural anomalies
- result from breakage of chromosomes followed by loss or rearrangement of genetic
- are of the following types (See Fig.9 below):

i. Deletion
- is loss of a portion of a chromosome.
- has the following subtypes (See Fig. 9):-

a. Terminal deletions arise from one break. The acentric fragments that are formed are lost
at the next cell division. This is denoted by using the prefix del before the notation for
the site of the deletion. E.g. 46,XX, del (18)(p14) or it can also be denoted by a minus
sign following the number of the chromosome & the sign for the chromosomal arm
involved. E.g. 46,XX, 5p- (which indicates deletion of the short arm of chromosome 5)
b. Interstitial deletions arise from 2 breaks, loss of the interstitial acentric segment & fusion
at the break sites.
c. Ring chromosomes arise from breaks on either side of the centromere & fusion at the
breakpoints on the centric segment. Segments distal to the breaks are lost so that
individuals with chromosome rings have deletions from both the long arm & short arm of
the chromosome involved. May be denoted as for example 46,XX, r(15).

ii. Isochromosome formation
- results when one arm of a chromosome is lost & the remaining arm is duplicated, resulting
in a chromosome consisting of 2 short arms only or 2 long arms only. The arm on one side
of the centromere is a mirror image of the other. E.g. i(X)(q10) results in monosomy of the
genes on the short arm of X & trisomy of the genes on the long arm of X. (See Fig.9)

iii. Inversion
- is reunion of a chromosome broken at 2 points, in which the internal segment is
reinserted in an inverted position.
- are compatible with normal development.

iv. Translocation.
- is an exchange of chromosomal segments between 2 non-homologous chromosomes.
- is denoted by a t followed by the involved chromosomes in numerical order.
E.g. the translocation form of Downs syndrome is designated as t(14q;21q).
- has 2 types (See Fig. 9):

a. Reciprocal (balanced translocation)
- is a break in 2 chromosomes leading to an exchange of chromosomal material between
the two chromosomes. Since no genetic material is lost, balanced translocation is often
clinically silent. But it can also cause disease as in the t(9,22) which causes chronic
myelogenous leukaemia.

b. Robertsonian translocation
- is a variant in which the long arms of 2 acrocentric chromosomes are joined with a
common centromere, & the short arms are lost.

Before going into the discussion of some of the chromosomal disorders, it is good to
remember what mosaicism is.
- is the presence of 2 or more cell lines with different karyotypes in a single individual. In a
mosaic individual, a normal diploid cell commonly coexists with an abnormal cell line.
The abnormal cell line may have a numerical or structural anomaly. A specific cell line
may be represented in all tissues or may be confined to single or multiple tissues. The
expression of the phenotype depends on the proportion & distribution of the abnormal
cell line.
- is caused by mitotic errors in early development (i.e. in the fertilized ovum/embryo).
(See above).

Fig. 6.10. Types of structural anomalies (structural rearrangements) of chromosomes.

C. Cytogenetic disorders involving autosomes
- include:
o Down syndrome
o Edward syndrome
o Patau syndrome
o Chromosome 22q11 deletion syndrome

Down syndrome
- is the most frequent chromosomal disorder.
- is caused by:-
1. Trisomy 21
- accounts for 95% of cases & its incidence increases with maternal age.
- is produced usually (i.e. in 95% of cases of trisomy) by maternal meiotic
nondisjunction. When the cause is paternal nondisjunction, there is no relation to
paternal age.

2. Translocation
- accounts for 4% of all cases of Downs syndrome.
- has no relation to maternal age.
- is caused by paternal meiotic robertsonian translocation between chromosome 21 &
another chromosome. The fertilized ovum will have 3 chromosomes bearing the
chromosome 21 material, the functional equivalent of trisomy 21.
- leads to a familial form of Downs syndrome, with a significant risk of the syndrome in
subsequent children

3. Mosaicism
- accounts for 1% of cases.
- usually shows a mixture of cells with 46 & 47 chromosomes.
- results from mitotic nondisjunction of chromosome 21 during an early stage of
- has milder symptoms depending on the proportion of the abnormal cells.
- is not influenced by maternal age.

Down syndrome
- has the following clinical features:
o Severe mental retardation
o Broad (flat) nasal bridge & oblique palpebral fissure. Because of these features
the old name of this disease is mongolism.
o Epicanthic folds
o Wide-spaced eyes
o Large protruding tongue
o Small low-set ears
o Bruschfields spots (small white spots in the periphery of the iris).
o Short broad hands with curvature of the 5
finger, simian crease (a single palmar
o Unusually wide space between the 1
& the 2
o Congenital heart disease (in about 40% of the cases).
o A 10 20 fold increased risk of developing acute leukaemia.
o Increased susceptibility to infection
o In patients surviving to middle age, morphologic changes similar to Alzheimers

D. Cytogenetic disorders involving sex chromosomes
The following subtopics will be discussed below:
1. General features
2. Klinefelter syndrome
3. Turner syndrome
4. Disorders of sexual differentiation

1. General features
Sex chromosomal disorders have the following general features:
a. They generally induce subtle, chronic problems relating to sexual development &
b. They are often difficult to diagnose at birth & many are first recognized at the
time of puberty.
c. The higher the number of the X chromosomes (both males & females), the higher
the likelihood of mental retardation.
d. They are far more common than those related to autosomal aberrations.
e. They are better tolerated than autosomal disorders. I.e. extreme karyotype
deviations in the sex chromosomes are compatible with life. This is due to the
following 2 factors that are unique to the sex chromosomes:
i. The scant genetic information carried by the Y chromosome &
ii. The lyonization of the X chromosomes

i. The scant genetic information carried by the Y chromosome:
Most of the Y chromosome appears to be junk DNA i.e. repetitive sequences that are
without function. But there are some essential genes on the Y chromosome such as the
genes which determine the testes, spermatogenesis, etc. The Y chromosome is both
necessary & sufficient for male development. Regardless of the number of the X
chromosomes, the presence of a single Y chromosome leads to the male sex.
ii. The lyonization of the X chromosomes (X chromosome inactivation)
In normal female somatic cells, there are 2 X chromosomes, but most of the genes on
one of the X chromosomes are inactive. The process by which this occurs is called X
chromosome inactivation or lyonization or Lyons hypothesis.

a. The X chromosome with most of the genes turned off is called the inactive X
chromosome. The other one is called the active X chromosome.

b. If a somatic cell contains more than one X chromosome, all but one are inactivated. E.g.1.
In a 47, XXY cell, there is one active & one inactive X chromosome (the Y chromosome
is irrelevant to the process of X inactivation). E.g. 2 in a 49, XXXXX cell, there is one
active X chromosome & 4 inactive chromosomes
c. X inactivation occurs early in embryogenesis among all cells of the bastocyst at about the
day of embryonic life.
d. The process of X inactivation is random in any single cell. Either the X chromosome
inherited from the mother (called Xm) or the X chromosome inherited from the father
(called Xp) may be inactivated with equal likelihood.
e. Once X inactivation occurs in an embryonic cell, the same X chromosome remains
inactivated in all of the progeny of that cell. Females are mosaics. On average, half of
the cells in a female have an inactive Xm & the other half of the cells have an inactive
Xp. However, some tissues (& some women ) may have substantially more cells with
one or the other X chromosome active by chance.
f. X inactivation involves most, but not all, genes on the X chromosome. Some essential
genes must be expressed in 2 copies from both X chromosomes for normal growth &
development. For this reason, some essential genes on the X chromosome escape X-
inactivation. So if one of these essential genes is absent (as occurs in Turner
syndrome), it results in abnormal growth & development. Likewise, the presence of an
extra X chromosome (as occurs in Klinefelter syndrome) leads to abnormal phenotype.
g. The inactive X-chromosome may be visible in an interphase cell as a condensed mass of
chromatin called the Barr body (X chromatin). The maximum number of Barr bodies
seen in a cell is equal to the number of inactivated X chromosomes (i.e. one less than
the total number of X chromosomes in the cell). E.g. Normal females (46,XX) will have
one Barr body, & individuals with 3 chromosomes (XXX) will have 2 Barr bodies, & those
with 4 X chromosomes will have 3, & so on. Counting the number of Barr bodies in
somatic cells (usually in smears of buccal mucosa) is the basis of the sex chromatin test
for sex chromatin aneuplody. This test is no longer used in the Western countries
because karyotyping is much more accurate.
h. X-chromosome inactivation produces dosage compensation. Females normally have 2 X-
chromosomes & males have only one. And most of the genes on the X chromosome do
not have homologues on the Y chromosome. Despite the fact that females have double
doses of most X-linked genes in comparison to males, the amount of X linked products
is usually about the same in males & females. This dosage compensation is produced
by X inactivation.

i. X inactivation has the following clinical implications:
may express the mutant phenotype if most of her cells happen to have inactivated the X
chromosome carrying the normal gene.
2. A female carrier of an X-linked recessive disease may not detectable by gene product
assays (e.g. by the amount of protein or enzyme activity) if most of her cells happen to
inactivate the X chromosome carrying the mutant gene.
3. Although monosomy (i.e. the presence of one instead of the normal 2 copies) for any
autosome is lethal early in embryogenesis; monosomy for the X chromosome is relatively
common in live born infants & produces a relatively mild phenotype called Turner
4. Trisomy (i.e. the presence of 3 rather than the normal 2 copies) of the sex chromosomes
produces a much less severe phenotype than trisomy for any of the autosomes. Trisomy
of the sex chromosomes produces phenotypic changes because of the triple dosage of
the essential genes on the X chromosomes (1 copy of these essential genes on the
active X chromosome & 2 copies of the activated escapee essential genes on the
inactivated X chromosome). Points 3 & 4 above illustrate that aneuploidy of the sex
chromosomes is better tolerated than the aneuploidy of the autosomes.
2. Klinefelter syndrome
- is a disorder that occurs when there are at least 2 X chromosomes & 1 or more Y
- is most often characterized by the karyotype 47, XXY. Variants include additional X
chromosomes (e.g. XXXY) & rare mosaic forms. In the typical XXY form, a single Barr
body is noted in the buccal smear preparations.
- is caused by parental meiotic nondisjunction & incidence increases with maternal age.
- is characterized by male hypogonadism & its secondary effects.
- shows atrophic testes with decreased spermatogenesis which leads to infertility &
decreased testosterone production. In addition, it also shows increased plasma estradiol
levels (by unknown mechanism). The ratio of estrogens & testosterone determines the
degree of feminization.
- therefore, shows lack of secondary male sexual characteristics (i.e. no deep voice, no
beard, no male distribution of pubic hair).

- also shows tall stature (because fusion of the epiphyses is delayed), & eunuchoid
appearance with gynecomastia.
- is rarely associated with mental retardation, which is usually mild. The extent of
retardation increases with increased number of X chromosomes.
- is usually undiagnosed before puberty.
3. Turner syndrome
- is a disorder that occurs when there is a complete or partial monosomy of the X
- is associated with one of the following 3 types of karyotypic abnormalities:
o 45,X karyotype ( in which no Barr bodies are seen in the buccal smear)
o mosaics (45, X cell plus one or more karyotypically normal or abnormal cell types)
o structural abnormalities of the X chromosomes which result in partial monosomy of
the X chromosome. E.g. deletion of one of the arms of the X chromosome.
This karyotypic heterogeneity associated with Turners syndrome is responsible for
significant variations in phenotype. E.g. 45, XO causes a severe phenotype whereas
mosaics may have a normal appearance with only primary amenorrhea.
- is characterized by female hypogonadism & its secondary effects.
- shows:-
o Replacement of the ovaries by fibrous streaks .
o Decreased estrogen production & increased pituitary gonadotropins from loss of
feedback inhibition.
o Infantile genitalia & poor breast development & little pubic hair.
o Short stature (rarely exceeding 150cm in height), webbed neck, shield-like chest
with widely spaced nipples, & wide carrying angles of the arms.
o Lymphedema of the extremities & neck.
o Congenital heart disease (especially preductal coarctation of the aorta & bicuspid
aortic valve).
4. Disorders of sexual differentiation (Sexual ambiguity)
- are said to be present when genetic sex, gonadal sex, or genital sex of an individual are

i. Definitions
The sex of an individual can be defined on many levels:-
1. Genetic sex
- is determined by the presence or absence of a Y chromosome. No matter how many X
chromosomes are present, the presence of a single Y chromosome leads to testicular
development & a genetic male. At least one Y chromosome is necessary & sufficient for
male gender to manifest.
2. Gonadal sex
- is determined by the presence of ovaries or testes. The gene responsible for the
development of the testes is localized to the Y chromosome.
3. Ductal sex
- depends on the presence of derivatives of the Mullerian or Wolffian ducts.
4. Phenotypic or genital sex
- is based on the appearance of the external genitalia.
Sexual ambiguity is present whenever there is discordance among these various criteria for
determining sex.
ii. True hermaphrodite
- is very rare.
- has both ovaries & testicular tissue, with ambiguous external genitalia.
- may result from the fusion of 2 sperms (one X-carrying sperm & one Y-carrying sperm)
with a binucleated ovum.
iii. Pseudohermaphrodite
- shows discordance between the phenotypic sex & gonadal sex.
- i.e. has gonads of only one sex, but the appearance of the external genitalia does not
correspond to the gonads present. Thus, a male pseudohermaphrodite has testicular
tissue but female-type genitalia. A female pseudohermaphrodite has a ovaries but male
external genitalia (or the external genitalia are not clearly male).

1. Female pseudohermaphroditism
- is caused by exposure of the fetus to increased androgenic hormones during the early part
of gestation as occurs in congenital adrenal hyperplasia, androgen-secreting ovarian or
adrenal tumor in the mother, or hormones administered to the mother during pregnancy.
2. Male pseudohermaphroditism
- has a Y chromosome & only testes but the genital ducts or the external genitalia are either
ambiguous or completely female.
- may be caused by tissue resistance to androgens (called testicular feminization), by
defects in testosterone synthesis, or by estrogens administered to the mother during
V. Disorders with multifactorial inheritance
- are more common than mendelian disorders.
- result from the combined actions of environmental factors & 2 or more mutant genes
having additive effects (i.e. the greater the number of inherited mutant genes, the more
severe the phenotypic expression of the disease). The disease clinically manifests only
when the combined influences of the genes & the environment cross a certain threshold.
- include such common diseases as:-
o Diabetes mellitus,
o Hypertension,
o Ischemic heart disease,
o Gout,
o Schizophrenia,
o Bipolar disorders,
o Neural tube defects,
o Cleft lip/ cleft palate,
o Pyloric stenosis,
o Congenital heart disease, etc.
- are characterized by the following features:-
1. The risk of expressing a multifactorial disorder partly depends on the number of inherited
mutant genes.
Hence, if a patient has more severe expression of the disease, then his relatives have a
greater risk of expressing the disease (because they have a higher chance inheriting a

greater number of the mutant gene). In addition, the greater the number of affected
relatives, the higher the risk for other relatives.
2. The risk of recurrence of the disorder is the same for all first degree relatives of the
affected individual & this is in the range of 2-7%. First-degree relatives are parents,
siblings, & offspring. Hence, if parents have had one affected child, then risk that the next
child will be affected is between 2 & 7%. Similarly, there is the same chance that one of
the parents will be affected.
3. The concordance rate for identical twins (i.e. the probability that both identical twins will
be affected) is 20 40% but this is much greater than the concordance rate for non-
identical twins.
4. The risk of recurrence of the phenotypic abnormality in subsequent pregnancies depends
on the outcome in previous pregnancies. When one child is affected, the chance that the
next child will be affected is 7%. When 2 children are affected, then the chance that the
next child will be affected increases to 9%.

VII. Single gene disorders with nonclassic inheritance

- are rare & are briefly mentioned here.
- can be classified into the following categories:
A. Diseases caused by mutations in mitochondrial genes.
E.g. Leber hereditary optic neuropathy
B. Diseases associated with genomic imprinting
E.g. Prader-Willi syndrome, Angelman syndrome
C. Diseases associated with gonadal mosaicism
Gonadal mosaicism can explain unusual pedigrees seen in some autosomal
dominant disorders such as osteogenesis imperfecta in which phenotypically
normal parents have more than one affected children. This cannot be explained by
new mutations. Instead, it can be explained by gonadal mosaicism
D. Disorders caused by triplet repeat mutations
E.g. Fragile X syndrome
- is the second most frequent cause of hereditary mental retardation next to Down
- is clinically manifest in both males & females. In males, it is characterized by bilateral
macro-orchidism (enlarged testes).

VIII. Review Exerecise

1. What is mutation? List the various types of mutations & discuss their effects by giving
examples for each type.
2. What are the 4 major categories of genetic diseases?
3. Classify mendelian disorders based on their patterns of inheritance.
4. Explain the criteria, the pathogenesis, & give clinical examples for the 3 main mendelian
patterns of inheritance.
5. Explain the general pathogenesis of mendelian disorders associated with enzyme
6. Discuss the various types of numerical & structural chromosomal anomalies.
7. Describe meiotic & mitotic nondisjunction.
8. What is Down syndrome? Describe its causes & its clinical features.
9. What are the clinical consequences of X chromosome inactivation?
10. Describe the karyotypes & the clinical features of Turner syndrome Hypofunction of
which organ can explain these clinical features?
11. Describe the cause, the karyotypes, & the clinical features of Klinefelter syndrome.
Hypofunction of which organ can explain these clinical features?
12. W/ro Almaz is pregnant for the second time. Her first child, Abebe has disease X. W/ro
Almaz has 2 brothers, Tesfaye & Fantu, & a sister Desta. Fantu & Desta are unmarried.
Tesfaye is married to an unrelated woman called Tenagne, & has a 2 year old
daughter, Mimi. W/ro Almazs parents are Ato Kebede & W/ro Beletech. Beletechs
sister who is called W/ro Kelemuwa is the mother of W/ro Almazs husband, Ato Worku,
who is 25 years old. There is no previous family history of disease X.
a. Draw the pedigree using standard symbols.
b. What is the pattern of transmission of the of disease X, & what is the risk of
disease X for W/ro Almazs next child?
c. Which people in this pedigree are necessarily heterozygores?
13. What does the term multifactorial inheritance mean? Mention some common
multifactorial disorders. Describe the 4 common general features of multifactorial

1. Thompson MW, et al: Thomson & Thomson Genetics in Medicine, 5
ed. Philadelphia,
WB Saunders, 1991.
2. Cotran RS, et al: Genetic disorders. In Cotran RS, et al: Robbins Pathologic Basis of
Disease, 6
ed. Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1999, pp 139 186.
3. Friedman JM et al: Genetics (National Medical Series{NMS} for independent study), 2

ed. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins, 1996.
4. Schneider AS, Szanto PA: Genetic disorders. In Schneider AS, Szanto PA: Pathology
(Board review series), 1
ed., Williams & Wilkins, 1993.
5. Beaudet AL: Genetics & disease. In Fauci AS, et al (eds): Harrisons principles of internal
medicine, 14
ed, McGraw-Hill, 1998.
6. Cell biology
7. Lippincots Biochemistry

I. Learning objectives

At the end of the chapter, the student is expected to:
1. Learn mechanisms and examples of hypersensitivity reaction
2. Understand etiologic factors in autoimmune diseases
3. Have birds eye view concept on immunodeficiency states
Before reading this chapter, the student is advised to review his/her immunology text or
lecture note.
Disorders of the immune system are divided into three broad categories:
1. Hypersensitivity reactions (immunologically mediated tissue injury)
2. Autoimmune diseases
3. Immunodeficiency diseases
We will discuss these categories sequentially.

II. Hypersensitivity Reactions

The purpose of the immune response is to protect against invasion by foreign organisms,
but they often lead to host tissue damage. An exaggerated immune response that results in
tissue injury is broadly referred to as a hypersensitivity reaction.

a. According to Gell and Combs classification, hypersensitivity reactions can be divided
into four types (type I, II, III, and IV) depending on the mechanism of immune recognition
involved and on the inflammatory mediator system recruited.
b. Types I II, and III reactions are dependent on the interaction of specific antibodies with
the given antigen, whereas, in type IV reactions recognition is achieved by antigen
receptors on T-cells.

1) Type I hypersensitivity (anaphylactic or immediate type) reaction

Definition: Type I hypersensitivity reaction may be defined as a rapidly developing
Immunologic reaction occurring, within minutes after the combination of an antigen with
antibody bound to mast cells or basophilic in individuals previously sensitized o the antigen.
The reactions depend on the site of antigen exposure for example in skin hive, upper
respiratory tract Hay fever, bronchial asthma and systemic reaction anaphylactic

-Presentation of the antigen (allergen) to precursor of TH2cells by antigen presenting
dendritic cells on epithelial surfaces
Newly minted TH2 cells produce clusters of cytokines including IL-3,IL-4,IL-5 and GM-
The IL-4 is essential for activation of B cells to produce IgE and IL-3 and IL-5 are
important for the survival of eosinophillic activation
The IgE antibodies produced has a high affinity to attach to mast cells and basophiles
A mast cell or basophil armed with cytophilic IgE antibodies is re-exposed to the specific
In this process multivalent antigens binds to more than one IgE molecules and cause
cross-linkage with adjacent IgE antibody.
This bridging of IgE molecules activates signal transduction pathways from cytoplasmic
portion of IgE fc receptors. This signal initiates two parallel but independent processes.
One leading to mast cell degranulation with discharge of preformed (primary) mediators
and the other involving denovo synthesis and release of secondary mediators.
(I) Mast cell degranulation discharge preformed granules such as primary mediators
including biogenic amines, histamine, adenosine, eosinophlic and neutrophlic
chemotactic factors, enzymes including proteases, and several acid hydrolases.
(II) The other involved is de novo synthesis and release of secondary mediators
such as arachidomic metabolites
- Leukotriens C
& D
most potent vasoactive and spasmogenic agents
known by highly chemotatic for neutrophiles, eosinophiles and monocytes
- Prostaglandin D
causes intense bronchospasm & increase mucus
- Platelet-activating factor release histamine, ed vascular permeability
- Cytokinesactivation of inflammatory cells

- Thus, type I reactions have two well-defined phases.
a. Initial phase (response):
Characterized by vasodilatation, vascular leakage, and depending on the
location, smooth muscle spasm or glandular secretions.
b. Late phase
As it is manifested for example in allergic rhinitis and bronchial asthma, more
intense infiltration of eosinophiles, neutrophiles, basophilic, monocytes and CD4
+ T cells are encountered and so does tissue destruction (epithelial mucosal
Mast cells and basophiles are central to the development of Type I reaction.
Mast cells are bone marrow driven cells widely distributed in tissues around
blood vessels, and sub epithelial sites where type I reaction occurs.

Histamine and leukotriens are released rapidly from sensitized mast cells and are
responsible for intense immediate reaction characterized by edema, mucous
secretions and smooth muscles spasms.
Others exemplified by leukotriens platelet activating factor (PAF), TNF- and cytokines
are responsible for the late phase response by recruiting additional leukocytes,
basophilic neutrophiles and eosinophiles. These cells secrete other waves of
mediators and thus, damage epithelial cells.
Eosinophiles are particularly important in the late phase. The armamentarium of
eosinophiles is as extensive as the mast cells.
Prototype example of Morphologic features in type l reactions is exemplified by
bronchial asthma with
-Increased mucous glands with resultant mucous secretion
-Hypertrophy of bronchial smooth muscles with attending brochoconstriction
-Edema formations with inflammatory cells infiltrations peribronchially

2) Type II hypersensitivity reaction

Definition:Type II hypersensitivity is mediated by antibodies directed towards antigens
present on the surface of exogenous antigens.
Three different antibody-dependent mechanisms are involved in this type of reaction

(i) Complement-dependent reaction

i. Direct lysis:
a) It is effected by complements activation, formation of membrane attack complex (C5
9). This membrane attack complex then disrupts cell membrane integrity by drilling a
hole. In anucleated cells once and in nucleated cells many attacks of the complex are
needed for cell lysis, because the latter ones have abilities to repair cell membrane
injuries rapidly.
b) Opsoinization: By C3b, fragment of the complement to the cell surface enhances
Examples include red blood cells, leukocytes and platelets disorders: Transfusion reaction;
haemolytic anemia; Agranuloytosis; Thrombocytopenia; Certain drug reaction

ii. Antibody dependent cell - mediated cytotoxicity /ADCC/
This type of antibody mediated Cell injury does not involve fixation of complements.
The target cells coated with IgG antibodies are killed by a variety of nonsensitized
cells that have Fc receptors.
The non-sensitized cells included in ADCC are monocytes/large granular/ lympholytes
/ Natural killer cells, neutrophils and eosinophils.
The cell lysis proceeds without phagocytosis. Example include graft rejection

iii. Antibody-mediated cellular dysfunction
In some cases, antibodies directed against cell surface receptors impair or
dysregulated function without causing cell injury or inflammation. For example: In
Myasthenia Gravis, antibodies reactive with acetylcholine receptors in the motor end
plates of skeletal muscles impair neuromuscular transmission and cause muscle
The converse is noted in Graves disease where antibodies against the thyroid-
stimulating hormone receptor on thyroid epithelial cells stimulate the cells to produce
more thyroid hormones.

3) Type III hypersensetivity / immune complex-mediated

Type III hypersensitivity reaction is induced by antigen-antibody complex that produces
tissue damage as a result of their capacity to activate the complement system. The
antibodies involved in this reaction are IgG, IgM or IgA.

Sources of antigens include:
a. Exogenous origin Bacteria streptococcus (infective endocarditis) Viruses Hepatitis B
virus (Polyarteritis nodosa) Fungi Actinomycetes (farmers lung) Parasites
plasmodium species (glomerulonephritis) Drugs quinidin (hemolytic anemia) Foreign
serum (serum sickness)
b. Endogeneous origin
Nuclear components (systemic lupus erythematosis) Immunoglobulins (rheumatoid
arthritis) Tumour antigen (glomerulonephritis) Therefore, autoimmune diseases are
hypersensitivity diseases in which the exaggerated immune response is directed against
the self antigens as exemplified by the above three diseases.

The pathogenesis of systemic immune complex diseases has three phases:

a. Formation of Ag-Ab complex
Introduction of an antigen into the circulation, then Production of specific antibodies
by immuno-competent cells and subsequent antigen antibody formation
b. Deposition of immune complexes
The mere formation of antigen-antibody complex in the circulation does not imply
presence of disease.
Immune deposition depends on:
i) Size of immune complexes. Large complexes in great antibody excess are rapidly
removed by mononuclear phagocytic system (MPS).Most pathogenic ones are of
small or intermediate size / formed in slight Ag excess/
ii) Functional status of MPS: MPS clears circulating immune complexes however, its
overload or dysfunction increase the persistence of immune complexes in circulation
and resulting in tissue depositions.
Other factors for immune deposition include charge of immune complexes, valence
of antigen, avidity of the antibody, affinity of the antigen to various tissue components,
three-dimenstional /lattice/ structure of the complex, hemodynamic factors, etc.
Sites of immune complex deposition include:
Renal glomeruli, joints, skin, heart, serosal surfaces, & small blood vessels

c. Inflammatory reaction
After immune complexes are deposited in tissues acute inflammatory reactions
ensues and the damage is similar despite the nature and location of tissues. Due to
this inflammatory phase two mechanisms operate
i) Activation of complement cascades:
- C-3b, the opsonizing, and -C-5 fragments, the chemotaxins are characterized by
neutrophlic aggregation, phagocytosis of complexes and release of lysosomal
enzymes that result in necrosis.-C3a, C5a anaphylatoxins contribute to vascular
permeability and contraction of smooth muscles that result in vasodilation and
edema-C5-9 membrane attack complexes formation leads to cell lysis (necrosis)
ii) Activation of neutrophiles and macrophages through their Fc receptors.Neutorphiles
and macrophages can be activates by immune complexes even in absence of
complements. With either scenario, phagocytosis of immune complexes is effected
with subsequent release of chemical mediators at site of immune deposition and
subsequent tissue necrosis.

Morphology of immune complex-mediated hypersensitivity reaction
The morphologic consequences are dominated by acute necrotizing vasculitis with
intense neutrophilic exudation permiting the entire arterial wall. Affected glomeruli are
hyper cellular with proliferation of endothelial and mesengial cells accompanied by
neutrophillic and mononuclear infiltration. Arthritis may also occur.

Classification of immune complex-mediated diseases:
Immune complex-mediated diseases can be categorized into systemic immune complexes
diseases (e.g. serum sickness) and localized diseases (e.g.Arthus reaction).

Systemic immune-complex diseases:
Acute forms: If the disease results from a single large exposure of antigen / ex: acute
post-streptococal glomerulonephritis and acute serum sickness/ all lesion then tend
to resolve owing to catabolism of the immune complexes.

Arthus reaction:
The Arthur reaction is defined as a localized area of tissue necrosis resulting from an
immune complex vasculitis usually elicited in the skin. Arthus reaction occurs at site of
inoculation of an antigen and depends on the presence of precipitating antibody in the

circulation / with antibody excess/ that resulted in immune complex deposition.
Inflammatory reaction develops over 4-8 hours and may progress to tissue necrosis as
described above.
Chronic forms of systemic immune complex diseases result from repeated or
prolonged exposure of an antigen. Continuous antigen is necessary for the
development of chronic immune complex disease. Excess ones are most likely to be
deposited in vascular beds.

Clinical examples of systemic immune complex diseases:
Various types of glomerulonephritis
Rhematic fever
Various vasculitides
Quartan nephropathy
Systemic lupus erytomatosis
Rheumatoid arthritis

4) Type IV hypersensitivity (Cell-mediated) reaction

Definition: The cell-mediated type of hypersensitivity is initiated by specifically sensitized T-
lymphocytes. It includes the classic delayed type hypersensitivity reactions initiated by
CD4+Tcell and direct cell cytotoxicity mediated by CD8+Tcell. Typical variety of intracellular
microbial agents including M. tuberculosis and so many viruses, fungi, as well as contact
dermatitis and graft rejection are examples of type IV reactions

The two forms of type IV hypersensitivity are:
1. Delayed type hypersensitivity: this is typically seen in tuberculin reaction, which is
produced by the intra-cutaneous injection of tuberculin, a protein lipopolysaccharide
component of the tubercle bacilli.

Steps involved in type lV reaction include
a. First the individual is exposed to an antigen for example to the tubercle bacilli where
surface monocytes or epidermal dendritic (Langhanes) cells engulf the bacilli and
present it to nave CD4+ T-cells through MHC type ll antigens found on surfaces of
antigen presenting cells (APC),
b. The initial macrophage (APC) and lymphocytes interactions result in differentiation of
CD4+TH type one cells

c. Some of these activated cells so formed enter into the circulation and remain in the
memory pool of T cells for long period of time.
d. An intracutanous injection of the tuberculin for example to a person previously
exposed individual to the tubercle bacilli , the memory TH1 cells interact with the
antigen on the surface of APC and are activated with formation of granulomatous

2. T-cell mediated cytotoxicity
In this variant of type IV reaction, sensitized CD8+T cells kill antigen-bearing cells. Such
effector cells are called cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). CTLs are directed against cell
surface of MHC type l antigens and it plays an important role in graft rejection and in
resistance to viral infections. It is believed that many tumour-associated antigens are
effected by CTLs. Two mechanisms by which CTLs cause T cell damage are:
Preforin-Granzyme dependant killing where perforin drill a hole into the cell membrane
with resultant osmotic lysis and granzyme activates apoptosis of the target cells
FAS-FAS ligand dependant killing which induce apoptosis of the target cells

III. Immunologic Tolerance

Immunologic tolerance is a state in which an individual is incapable of developing an
immune response to specific antigens. Self-tolerance refers to lack of responsiveness to an
individuals antigens. Tolerance can be broadly classified into two groups: central and
peripheral tolerance.
i) Central tolerance
This refers to clonal deletion where immature clones of T and B-lymphocytes that bear
receptors for self-antigens are eliminated from the immune system during development
in central lymphoid organs. T cells that bear receptors from self-antigens undergo
apoptosis within/ during the process of T-cell maturation.
ii) Peripheral tolerance
1. Clonal deletion by activationinduced cell death. The engagement of Fas by Fas
ligand co-expressed on activated T-cells dampens the immune response by inducing
apotosis of activated T-cells ( Fas mediated apoptosis)
2. Clonal anergy: Activaton of Ag specific T-cell requires two signals
a). Recognition of peptide Ag wtih self-MHC molecules

b). Co-stimulatory signals such as CD 28 must bind to their ligand called B7-1 and B7-
2 on antigen presenting cells (APC) and if the Ag is presented by cell that do not
bear CD 28 ligand /i.e B7-1 or B7-2/ a negative signal is delivered and the cell
becomes anergic.
iii). Peripheral suppression by T- cell suppressor.
There are some evidence that peripheral suppression of autoreactivity may be
mediated in part by the regulated secretion of cytokines.
The CD+ T cells of the TH2 type have been implicated in mediating self-tolerance by
regulating the functions of pathogenic TH1 type cells. Cytokines produced by TH2 T
cell can down regulate autoreactive CD+Th1 by elaborating IL-4, IL-10 and TGF-B.

When normal tolerance of the self antigens by the immune system fails, autoimmune
diseases result.

IV. Autoimmune Diseases

Definition: Autoimmunity implies that an immune response has been generated against
self-antigens /Autoantigens/. Central to the concept of autoimmune diseases is a
breakdown of the ability of the immune system to differentiate between self and non-self
antigens. The presence of circulating autoantibodies does not necessarily indicate the
presence of autoimmune disease. Thus, pathologic autoimmunity is characterized by
the autoimmune response is not secondary to tissue injury but it has primary pathologic
Absence of other well-defined cause of disease.

Mechanisms of autoimmune diseases
1. Genetic: Evidences include
-Familial clustering of several diseases such as SLE, autoimmune hemolytic anemia,
Hashimotos thyroditis.
-linkage of several autoimmune diseases such as Hashimotos thyroditis, pernicious
anemia, Addion's disease, primary hypothyroidism, etc so-called Schmidts syndrome.
-Induction of autoimmune diseases with HLA especially class ll antigens exemplified
by HLA-B27

2. Immunologic:
Failure of peripheral tolerance: Breakdown of T-cell anergy
T-cell anergy may be broken if the APC can be induced to express co-stimulatory
molecules such as B7-1 and to secrete cytokines such as IL-12 that stimulate the
generation of TH 1 cells. This up regulation of co-stimulator molecule B7-1 has been
noted in multiple sclerosis, Rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis and Insulin dependant
diabetes mellitus (IDD).
Failure of activation induced cell death defects in Fas Fas ligand
System in generating apoptosis may allow persistence and proliferation of auto
reactive T- cells in peripheral tissues. No known disease is incremented but SLE
suggested only on experimental basis.
Failure of T-cell mediated suppression
Loss of regulatory or suppressor T-cells can limit the function of auto reactive T and
B cells and thus, can lead to autoimmunity. There is evidence that patients with SLE
have a deficiency of T-suppressor cells activity that would result in
hypergamaglobinmea and the production of autoantibodies.
Molecular mimicry (cross reacting antigens).
Some infections agents share epitopes with self-antigens. An immune response
against such microbes may produce tissue-damaging reactions against the cross-
reacting self-antigen.
The classic example is streptococcal pharyngitis, in which antibodies are produced
to the streptococcal M protein and cross-react with M protein of the sarcolemma
of cardiac muscle to produce the acute rheumatic fever. Another example is the
immunologic cross-reactivity between the glycoprotein D of the herpes simplex virus
and certain bacterial antigens with acetylcholine receptor.
Polyclonal B-lymphocytic activation
Tolerance in some cases is maintained by clonal anergy. Autoimmunity may occur
if such self reactive but anergic clones are stimulated by antigen-independent
mechanisms.Several micro-organisms and their products are capable of polyclonal
(i.e antigen nonspecific) activation of B cells.Examples include Epestein-barr virus
(in infections mononucleosis), gram-negative lipopolysaccharides (endotoxins).
Among the T-cells activated by super-antigens, some may be reactive to self-
antigens and thus, autoimmunity may result from arousal of such cells (Certain
bacterial products can bind to and activate a large pool of CD4 + T-cells in an
antigen independent manner. They do so by binding to class II MHC molecules on

APCs and the (beta) B. chains of the T-cell receptor (TCR) outside the antigen
binding groove. Because they stimulate all T-cells they are called superantigens)
Release of sequestrated antigens
Regardless of the exact mechanism by which self-tolerance is achieved (clonal
deletion or anergy), it is clear that induction of tolerance requires interaction between
the antigen and the immune system. Thus, any self-antigen that is completely
sequestrated during development is likely to be viewed as foreign if introduced into
the circulation, and an immune response develops.
Examples include the release of crystalline from the lens of the eye during cataract
extraction, or antigens from the uveal tract due to trauma, is followed by autoimmune
uveitis. Agglutinating antibodies to spermatozoa may be produced following testicular
trauma or rupture of an epidermal retention cyst.
The mere release of antigens is not sufficient to cause autoimmunity; the
inflammation associated with the tissue injury is essential.
3. Microbial agents:
Some bacteria, mycoplasm and viruses are implicated. Viruses and other microbes
may share cross-reacting epitopes with self-antigens. Example: Cross-reaction
between certain coxsackieviruses and islet cells antigen glutamic acid
decarboxylase. Microbial infections with resultant tissue necrosis and inflammation
can cause up regulation of co-stimulatory molecules on resting antigen-presenting
cells in tissue, thus favouring a breakdown of T- cell anergy. The inflammatory
response also facilitates presentation of cryptic antigens, and thus induces epitope

Classification of autoimmune diseases

The classification is based on the number of organs involved
Organ specific autoimmune diseases affect a single organ or tissue including
Hashimotos thyroiditis, Graves disease, 1
myxedema, Diabetes, chronic atropic
gastritis, Myasthenia gravis
Organ nonspecific autoimmune diseases affect many organs and tissues including
Systemic lupus erythematosus
Rheumatoid arthritis
Systemic sclerosis

Polyarteritis Nodosa
Sojourns syndrome
Here, only SLE (a prototype of autoimmune diseases) is given as an illustration.

Systemic lupus erythematosis (SLE)
disease characterized by a bewildering array of autoantibodies particularly antinuclear
antibodies (ANAS).
injury to the skin, joints, kidney and serosal membranes. Each and very part of the
to male ratio of 9:1, pick on set 2
to 4
Etiology and pathogenesis
factorial origin resulting from interactions including:
1. Genetic factors
in early complement components (C
or C
) etc.MHC regulates production of specific
2. Hormonal factors
accelerate during pregnancy and menses. Androgens however, confer decreased risk
3. Environmental factors
Drugs such as hydralazine, pencillin etc induce SLE like illness ) in which all acting in
several species of autoantibodies.
Ultraviolet rays
Emotional stress
4. Immunologic factors
i) B cell hyperactivity with hypergammaglobulinemia

ii) Autoantibodies present with reactivity to DNA, RNA, or phospholipids thus, antinuclear
into four categories
1. Antibodies to DNA
2. Antibodies to history
3. Antibodies to non-histone proteins bound to RNA
4. Antibodies to nucleolar antigens
(other autoimmunity positivity. Regardless of the exact sequence by which
autoantibodies are formed, they are clearly the mediators of tissue injury. Type III
hypersensitivity reaction is responsible for most visceral lesions. DNA anti DNA
complexes can be detected in the glomeruli and small blood vessels. Autoantibodies
against red cells, white cells and platelets mediate their effects via type II
become homogenous to produce so called lupus erythematous (LE) bodies or
that has engulfed the denatured nucleus of an injured cell.
Serum complement levels often decreased due to immune mediated compliment
It is mostly IgG type, lesser extent of the IgM type

Clinicopathologic features
Typically the patients young woman with a butterfly rash over the face
Generally the course of the disease is varible and almost unpredictable
diagnostic of SLE
heterogenicity in clinical presentation requires a clinical index of suspicion followed by
disorder, immunologic disorder and antinuclear antibody.

Morphologic changes in SLE are also extremely variable. The most characteristic
arterioles is characterized by fibrinoid necrosis.
Kidney: 60 70% involvement by SLE. AntidsDNA (60-90%associated with nephritis
WHO morphologic classification of the renal lesions of SLE:
Class I Normal light etc microscopy
II Mesengial glomerulonephritis
III focal proliferative glomerulonephritis
IV diffuse proliferative glomerulonephritis
V membranous glomerulonephritis
Skin: Acute lesions butterfly rash (50%) where histology shows liqufactive
accentuates the erythema. Chronic lesion: Descoid ( plaques with scales, scarring
with central atrophy)
Joints: Arthralgia or non erosive synovitis (unlike rheumatoid arthritis) with little
psychosis and organic brain syndrome.
varrucous endocarditis (Libbman sacks endocarditis) is a warty deposition of valvular
walls. Accelerated coronary atherosclerosis with evidence of angina pectoris and
myocardial infection.
Spleen - is moderately enlarged with focal hyperplasia

V. Immunodeficiency Diseases

The term immunodeficiency covers a group of disorders of specific immune responses,
neutrophil, macrophage and natural killer cells functions, as well as defects in the
compliment system that lead to impaired resistance to microbial infections.

Classification These diseases are crudely classified into primary and secondary types.
1) Primary immunodeficiency diseases (exceedingly rare)
These disorders usually manifest in early childhood and are almost always genetically
determined. Though, some overlap exists primary immunodeficiency diseases are
further divided into:
Deficiencies of antibody (B cells) immunity.
Eg. Infantile X-linked agammaglobinmea
Transient hypogammaglobulinmea of infancy
Deficiencies of cell mediated (T-cell) Immunity
T-cell deficiencies are difficult to trace as T-cells affects B cell functions
Eg. Di Georges syndrome:
Combined T-cell and B-cell deficiencies
Eg Severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID).

2) Secondary immunodeficiencies States
These immunodeficiency states may be acquired secondary to various disease processes
or drug effects
Protein deficiency
Lack of protein leads to cell mediated immunity and hypocomplementamia
Hematologic malignancies
Leukemia and lymphomas where normal functioning cell replaced by neoplastic ones
here both humeral and cell mediated immunity are impaired
Acute viral infection
Especially infectious mononucleosis and misels cause temporary impairment of cell-
mediated immunity
Chronic renal failure
Probably due to toxic effects of accumulated metabolites that affects both B and T-
cell functions

Steroids etc for organ transplants, cytotoxic drugs or radiotherapy for the treatment of
After staging operations of lymphomas or traumatic spleen rupture
Splenectomy leads to a characteristic immunodeficiency in which the patient is
susceptible to infections by phylogenic bacteria especially pneumococal pneumonia.
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
As a prototype example of secondary immunodeficiency states, AIDS is discussed in
some detail below.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)

AIDS is a retroviral disease characterized by profound immuno suppression that leads
to opportunistic infections, secondary neoplasms and neurological manifestations.

Prevalence: Currently AIDS affects more than 40 million people all over the world and
more than 90 % of the infections prevail in developing countries. Currently, the sub-
Saharan Africa in general and South Africa, Ethiopia and Nigeria in particular shoulder
the greatest burden of this pan endemic.
Age: Mostly affected individuals are those aged between 15 and 49 years of age
however, the epidemiology is quite different in children less than 13 years. Close to 2
% of all AIDS, occur in this age group presently where more than 90 % of this
transmission results from transmission of the virus from the mother to the child.
Sex: Women are more vulnerable than men:
Receptive sexual partners-
Uterine, cervical and vaginal conditions that promote HIV transmission easily
include cervical erosion, cervical ectopy, sexually transmitted diseases (STD),
and cervical cancer.
STD often goes unnoticed due to inaccessible anatomic locations.
Menstruation: May make the transmission of HIV easier just before, during or
after menstruation. It results in a large raw exposed area in the inner uterine
lining to the virus
Those with very low socio economic backgrounds are vulnerable to sex trade
(HIV is said to be the holocaust of the poor).

Age of earlier sexual contact where the very young female genital linings are
vulnerable to easy lacerations.

Modes of transmission:
Sexual activities 75% of all world-wide transmission is heterosexual transmission
Parenteral transmission In intravenous drug abusers, hemophiliacs who received
factor viii concentrates and random recipients of blood transfusion
Mother to child transmission
About 25 30% HIV, positive mother will transmit HIV to their infants.About 60% of this
infection is transmitted during child- birth 25% during pregnancy and 15% during breast-
Needle Pricking Accidental needle struck injury or exposure to non-intact skin to
infected blood in laboratories accounts for about 0.3% risk of stereovision as compared
to a 30% risk of accidental exposure to hepatitis B infected blood.

HIV causes AIDS and HIV is a non-transforming retrovirus belonging to Lentivirus
family. The retrovirus undergoes an unusual biologic process in which the genetic
material in form of a single stranded RNA, can be converted to double stranded DNA
by the effect of reverse transcriptase.
Two type of HIV viruses
HIV 1 - USA, EUROPE, East & central Africa
HIV - 2 - West Africa
HIV genome consists of a single stranded RNA enclosed within a core of viral
proteins. The core is in-turn enveloped by a phospholipids bilayer deprived from the
host cell membrane. The Envelop contains glycoproteins such as gp 120 and GP 41,
GP 24.

R coreproteins

The viral core consists of two protein shells
The outer contains the core protein P 18 and the inner core protein P 24. The lipid
bilayer consists of the viral glycoprotein gp 41 while gp 120 protrudes into the
environment. The RNA genome and the reverse transcriptase are contained within the
inner shell.
HIV 1 proviral genome contains 3 genes -Gag caspid protein P
, matrix protein
, nuclocospial protein P

- Pol - revers trancriptase, protease integrase, ribonuclease
- Env gp
and gp

In addition to these standard genes, the HIV contains other genes including
TAT- Potent transactivator of viral transcription
NEF- Essential for viral replication
REV- regulator of structural gene expression
VIF- Requires for maturation of HIV virus and if also promotes infectivity of cell free virus
VEF- essential for efficient viral replication
VPU- Required for efficient viron budding
VPR Required for viral replication in non-dividing cells and causing viral replication by
causing arrest of cycling cells in G
On the basis of genetic analysis HIV- I can be divided into two groups designated as M
(major) and 0 (outliers). Group M viruses are the most common viruses worldwide and
subdivided into several subtypes or clades designated A -J.
The HIV strains can be classified into two groups based on their absolute to infect
macrophage and CD4 + T-cells. Macrophage tropic (M-tropic) stains can infect both
monocytes/ macrophages and freshly isolated peripheral blood T-cells. T Tropic strains
can infect only T- cells both freshly isolated and retained in culture. M tropic strains
use CCR5 co receptors whereas T Tropic strains bind to CXCR4 co receptors. Ninty
percent (90%) of HIV is transmitted by M tropic strains, however over the course of
infection T Tropic ciruses gradually accumulate and these are virulent and cause
final rapid phase of the disease progression.

Targets of HIV infections are: The immune system and Central nervous system
Target cells are those having CD4 receptors include
CD4 + T helper cells

Monocytes /macrophages
Tissue cells such as dendritic cells present in genital tracts and anorectal region
Certain brain cells (glial cells)
Some other cells as well
- Receptor molecule is a high affinity receptor for HIV. This explains for the
selective tropism of the virus to aforementioned cells.
Initial binding of gp 120 to CD4 molecule leads to conformational change for the new
recognition site on gp120 for the co receptors CCR5 or CXCR4.
The second conformational change in gp41 results in insertion of a fusion peptide into
the cell membrane of the target T-cells or macrophages.
-After fusion, the viral core containing the HIV genome enters the cytoplasm of the cell

The life cycle of HIV virus after internalization, include
DNA Synthesis- the uncoated viral RNA is copied into double stranded DNA by
reverse transcriptase
Viral integration-the DNA derived from the viruses in integrated into host genome by
the viral integrate enzyme, thereby producing the latest proviral form of HIV-I.
Viral replication- viral RNA is reproduced by transcriptional activation of the
integrated HIV provirus
Viral dissemination- to complete the life cycle, nascent viruses assembled in the
cytoplasm and disseminate to other target cells after directly lysing the cell (direct
cytopathic effect of the virus).
The HIV virus after internalization assumes two forms of infectivity such as latent
infection and productive infections. In latent infections, the virus may be lacked in tne
cytoplasm (preintegration latency) or after being integrated into host DNA (Post
integration latency). Hereafter the highlight of HIV productive infection is surfaced.
- This productive infection is predominantly occur in lymphoid tissues, within
macrophages, dendritic cells and CD4+T CELLS.
- Viremia after 8 weeks of infection supervene
- Viremia is subsequently cleared by the development of an anti viral immune response
effected by CD8+cytotoxic T cells
- This results in transient decrease in CD4+T cells and an apparent rise in CD8+T cells

- As viremia declines, the HIV disseminates into lymphoid tissues and undergoes clinical
latency but not viral latency
- Finally the ebbs and flows of the CD4+T cells count with variable time results in AIDS.

Mechanisms of CD
+ T cell loss (quantitative defects):
Loss of immature precursors of CD
+ T cells by direct infection of thymic progenitor
cells or by infection of accessory cells that secrete cytokines essential for CD
+ cells
Fusions of infected & uninfected cells with formation of syncythia (giant cells) develop
ballooning and these cells usually die in few hours.
Apoptosis of uninfected CD
+ T cells by binding of soluble gp120 to CD

Qualitative defects on other immune cells as a result of CD4+T helper/ inducer cells

1. Defects of CD
+ T cells:
Reduced antigen induced T Cell proliferation
- Imbalance between the T-helper 1 (TH
) and TH
responses favour humoral immune
responses over cell mediated immunity
- Decreased lymphokine secretion
T-cell anergy (dysfunction) can also result from the binding of gp120 Ag-Ab complexes to
molecules impairing the antigen presentation by anti -gp 120 antibodies that cross-
react with and bind to class II HLA molecule on antigen presenting cells.
Anergy also result from binding of HIV derived suferantigen to B-chains of T-cell receptors.

2. Defects of monocytes / macrophages
These cells are extremely important in the pathogenesis of HIV infection. Similar to T cells
majority infected cells are found in tissues not in peripheral blood. A relatively high
productive infection of macrophages (10 to 15%) is detected in certain tissues such as Brain
and lungs.
1) Several aspects of HIV infection of macrophages include
Hiv-1 can also infect and multiply in terminally differentiated non- dividing macrophages.
This property of HIV-1 is dependant on HIV-1 VPR gene.The VPR protein allows nuclear
targeting of the HIV pre integration complex through the nuclear pore.
2) Infected macrophages bud relatively small amounts of virus from the cell surface,
however, they are quite resistant to the cytopathic effects of HIV.

3) Macrophages in all likelihood act as gatekeepers of infections. More than 90 % of HIV
infection is transmitted by M- trophic strains. It has been suggested that macrophages or
dendritic cells may be important in the pathogenesis of HIV diseases.
Thus, HIV infection of macrophages has three important implications.
I) Monocytes and macrophages represent a veritable virus factory and reservouir
whose output remains largely protected from host defences.
II) Second macrophages provide a safe vehicle for HIV transport to various parts of
the body particularly to the central nervous system.
III) In the late stages of HIV, infection when theCD4+T cells numbers decline greatly,
macrophages may be the major sites of continued viral replication.

The following are some of the qualitative changes seen in macrophages -Poor capacity of
present antigens to T-cells (most important one)
- Macrophages are quite resistant to cytopathic effects of the HIV
- impaired microbicidal activity,
- decreased chemotaxis
- Decreased secretion of IL-I
- Increased spontaneous secretion of IL-I, TNF - , IL 6.

3. B-lymphocyte dysfunctions
- Hypergamaglobinemia and circulating immune complexes
- Inability to mount do novo antibody response to a new antigen
- Decreased immunoglobuline production in response to new antigen

4. Defets of natural killer cells
- Decreased killing of tumour cells
- CD8 + cytotoxic T-cells: decreased specific cytotoxicity, thus, delayed cell mediated

How a latent HIV infection is transformed into productive infection?
Antigen or mutagen-induced activation of T-cells is associated with transcription of
genes encoding the cytokine IL-2 and its receptor (IL-2R) and after some steps
induction of nuclear factor- KB (NF KB) activates the transcription of HIV provirus
DNA and leads ultimately to the production of virons and to cell lysis.
Cellular activation, by antigens or cytokines (e.g.TNF-, IL-1, IL-2) induces
cytoplasmic kinases that translocate NF-KB from the cytoplasm to the nucleous. In
the nucleous, NF-KB binds to the enhancer sequence within the promoter region and
similarly long terminal repeats (LTR) have KB sites. Thus, induction of NF-KB

activates the transcription of HIV proviral DNA and leads ultimately to the production
of virons and to cell lysis.
Furthermore, TNF-, also leads to transcriptional activation of HIV m RNA by
production of nuclear factors of that bind to KB enhancer elements of HIV.

There are also profound B cell dysfunctions such as
- Hypergamagobinemea and circulating immune complexes are due to polyclonal B-cell
activation of CMV, and EBV
- Gp
can also promote B cell growth and differentiation
- HIV infected cells induce increased production of IL 6 which favours activation of B
- cells

Patients with AIDS are unable to mount antibody response to a new antigen. This could be
due to lack of T-cell help. Impaired humeral immunity renders these patients prey to
disseminate infections caused by encapsulated bacteria such as S. pneumonia and H.
influenza both of which require antibodies for effective optimization. In totality loss of CD4 +
T cells, the master cells, has ripple effect on virtually every other cell of the immune system.

Pathogenesis of central nervous system involvement:
CNS is a major target of HIV infection. Macrophages and imbroglio are the
predominant cell types in the brain that are infected with HIV. HIV is believed to be
carried to CNS by infected monocytes, which are almost exclusively of M tropic type.
Neurons in CNS are not affected directly but indirectly by viral products and soluble
factors produced by macrophages / microglia. Included among soluble factors are IL
I, TNF - and IL 6. In addition, nitric oxides also induce neuronal damage
(according to most investigators).
Direct damage of neurons by soluble HIV gp120 has also been postulated. According
to some investigators these diverse soluble neurotoxins act by triggering excessive
entry of Ca
into the neurons through their action on glutamate activated ion
channel that regulate intracellular calcium.

Natural history of HIV infection:
Three phases reflecting the dynamics of virus host interaction are recognized:

I. Early acute phase
High level of viral production, viremia and widespread seeding of lymphoid tissues. Its
spread is controlled by immune system and the virus is mainly swept into the lymph nodes

The decline in HIV viral load usually coincides with the time of sero-conversion and the
primary or early HIV infection. Acute phase occurs 4 8 weeks after acquiring the virus
There may be a short (1 2 weeks) seroconversion illness which cause the following in
about 50-70% individuals: fever, rash sore throat, muscle and joint pain and some lymph
node swelling. The level of viral load in early acute phase of the disease is called the set
point and anti retroviral therapy can reduce this set point thus, early detection especially in
cases of needle stick injuries, rape and other known risky exercises can benefit from it.

II. The middle chronic phase
Relative containment of the viruses with a period of clinical latency (not viral latency).
Patients develop asymptomatic infections. Persistent generalized lymph adenopathyes
(PGL) develops and PGL is defined as palpable lymphodenopathy at two or more extra
inguinal sites, persisting for more than 3 months in persons infected with HIV. Minor
opportunistic infections such as trush, herpes zoster etc.

III. The final, crisis phase
disease. Typically the patient presents with
Prolonged fever > 1/12
Fatigue, weight loss and diarrhea
+ T cells < 500 /l

After a variable period:
(i) Serious opportunistic infections, (Bacterial, Fungal, Viral
(ii) Secondary neoplasms: Kaposi sarcoma, Non Hodgkins lymphoma, Cervical
(iii) Clinical neurological diseases (AIDS defining disease)

Case definition of AIDS according to Centre for disease control (CDC)
Any HIV infected person with fewer than 200 CD
+ T-cells /l + is considered to have AIDS.
HIV infection progress to AIDS within 7 to 10 years in most cases, however exceptions to
this typical course also occur:
- Long term non progresses
- Those who stay symptomatic for 10 years or more with stable CD4 + T-cells count and
low plasma viremia
- Rapid Progresses

- Groups of patients with the middle chronic phase is telescoped to 2-3 years after primary

Phases of HIV infections and corresponding CDC classification categories

Phase CDC categories
Early acute Group1 acute infection
Middle, chronic group2 asymptomatic infection
Group3 PGL
Final, crisis Group4
Subgroup A-constitutional diseases
Subgroup B-neurological Diseases
Subgroup C-Secondary infections
Subgroup D-Secondary neoplasms
Subgroup E-other Conditions
CDC=Center for Disease Control

The relationship between the immune status, the CD4+ T cell count, the lymphocyte
count, and the presence of symptomatic disease:

Clinical condition Cd4+T cells/m lymphocytes counts/mm3
Well with no symptoms More than500-600 cells
More than 2500
Minor symptoms 350-500cells/mm3

1000- 2500
Major symptoms and
opportunistic diseases
200-300cells/mm3 500-1000
AIDS Less than 200cells/mm3 Less than 500

VI. Exercises

1. Discuss the pathogenic mechanisms of each type of hypersensitivity reaction with
2. Elaborate the mechanisms of autoimmune diseases
3. Discuss SLE.
4. List out conditions that lower immune resistance
5. Discuss the entry, the life cycle and genetic components of HIV virus
6. Elaborate the natural history of HIV infection and AIDS after internalization

1. Cotran RS, Kumar V, Collins T. Robins pathologic basis of diseases. Philadelphia, J.B.
Saunders Company. 6th edition 1999
2. Mac Sween RNM, Whaley K. Muirs Textbook of pathology. London, Edward Arlond 13th
edition 1992
3. Rubin E, Farber JC. Pathology Philadelphia, J.B. Lippincott Company 6th edition 1994
4. Dey NC, Dey TK. A Textbook of Pathology Calcatta, Messers Allied agency 10th edition

I. Learning objectives:

At the end of this chapter, the student is expected to:

Explain the etiology, pathogenesis, morphologic, & some clinical features of typhoid fever,
tuberculosis, leprosy, syphilis, malaria, leishmaniasis, schistosomiasis, & selected fungal.

II. Typhoid Fever

Definition: Typoid fever is an acute enteric disease caused by an obligate intracellular
bacillus called Salmonella Typhi and this bacillus resides within mononuclear phagocytic
cells of lymphoid tissues. The disease is unique humans and it is characterized by fever,
splenomegaly and neutropenia.
Transmission: Feco-oral routes through contaminated foods

convalescent carrier for up to 6 months of infection
Chronic fecal and chronic urinary carriers are associated with chronic cholecystitis and
pyelonephritis respectively.
S. mansoni and S. hematobium co-infections protract the course of typhoid fever.

Infection is by ingestion of the organism, (>10 to the power of 7 ) in 50% of cases
penetrate the small intestine mucosa and reach the circulation with transient bactremia
The bacilli are taken by the lymphatic to lymph nodes and they are engulfed by
mononuclear phagocytic cells.
After a period of multiplication in these phagocytic cells, the organisms rupture the cells
and invade the blood stream via the thoracic duct. The liver, gallbladder, spleen, kidney
and bone marrow become infected during this second bactermic phase, characterizing
the clinical features of the diseases.

The main pathological changes are found in the gastrointestinal tract particularly The
Payers patches, which are the sub mucosal lymphoid follicles in this tract. This invasion
arises from the gall bladder. Payers patches may show
Hyperplasia in first week
Necrosis in second week
Ulceration in third week
Healing in fourth week
Typhoid ulcers are oval and are situated longitudinally along the long axis of the colon,
which are in contra -distinction of tuberculous ulcers that are set transversally.

Leukopenia 3000-4000/mm

Blood culture - 1
week (70-90%)
Fecal culture - 2
week best (75%)
Urine culture - 2
Serology 2

Clinical course:
Typhoid fever is a protracted disease that is associated with
Bactermia, fever and chills during the first week
Widespread reticuloendothelial involvement with rash, abdominal pain and
prostration in the second week and
Ulceration of payer's patches with intestinal bleeding and shock during the third

Complications may include:
Intestinal perforation: 3 4% and it is responsible to 25% of the death
Intestinal hemorrhage: 8% and usually seen between 14-21 days of illness
Acute cholecystitis, etc

III. Acute Osteomyelitis

Definition: It is an inflammation of the bone and marrow (osteo- means bone and myelo
marrow), commonly in children and adolescents
Route: Hematogenous spread most common in long and vertebral bones extension from
contagious site- otitis media, dental caries

Direct implantation-compound fracture,

All types of organisms possible; however, pyogenic organisms most notably
Staphylococcus aurous represent 80 - 90% of pyogenic osteomylitis. Others include
pseudomonas, Klebsiella, Salmonella in sickle cell anemic patients.

Any bone may be affected but the metaphysics of long bones (distal femur, proximal
tibia and humorus) adjacent to actively growing epiphyses and the vertebral column are
most often involved.

The location of the lesions within specific bones is influenced by the vascular circulation,
which varies with age. In the neonate, the metaphysical vessels penetrate the growth
plate resulting in frequent infection of the metaphysis, epiphysis or both.
In children, localization of microorganisms in the metaphysics is typical.
In adults, the epiphyscal growth plate is closed and the metaphysical vessels reunite
with their epiphyses counterparts, which provide a route for bacteria to seed in the
epiphysis and subchondral regions.
The susceptibility of the metaphysis to acute osteomylitis is in part, explained by the
dilated vascularature of the marrow spaces where sluggish blood flow provides an ideal
site for multiplication of bacteria.
Then acute inflammatory response with exudation follows with venous and arterial
thrombosis. These reaction increases intravenous pressure with a resultant bone
necrosis. Infection spreads rapidly through marrow spaces which perpetuates the
Haversian systems of the metaphysical cortex, elevates the periosteum and forms a
subperiosteal abscess in children and adolescents as opposed to adults periosteum that
is adherent to the bone.
Accession of both peri-osteal and endo-osteal vessels lead to segmental bone necrosis
of some or all of the diaphysis, the portion of dead bone is known as a sequestrum.
Small sequestra especially in children tend to be completely absorbed by osteoclastic
activity. Large sequestra form a nidus for episodes of infection. In the presence of a
sequestrum, the periosteal reactive woven or laminar bone may be deposited as a

sleeve of living tissue known as involcrum, around the segment of devitalized bone
(sequestrum). The involcrum around sequestrum is usually irregular and perforated.
In infants, acute ostemylitis may complicate acute arthritis through infrequent it also
occurs in adults. The picture is different in children.
The patient complains of fever, sever pain and tenderness aggravated by any
movement, ESR elevated, leukocytosis
Complications include septicemia, septic arthritis, alteration in growth rate, chronic

IV. Tuberculosis

Tuberculosis is a prototype example of granulomatius inflammation.
Tuberculosis infects one third of world populations and kills about three million people yearly
and it is the single most important infectious disease.

Etiology: Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium bovis are the regular infecting
rod shaped, acid fast and alcohol fast, strict aerobic, non-spore forming bacteria with a waxy
coat. It has a slow generation time of 4-6 weeks to obtain a colony of mycobacterium
tuberculosis. M. tuberculosis is transmitted by inhalation of infective droplets coughed or
sneezed into the air by a patient with open tuberculosis, however, M. bovis is transmitted by
milk from infected cows. Rarely, it transmits via breached skin surfaces and conjunctiva.
M. Avium and M. intracellulare cause disseminated infection in 15%-24% of patients with

Pathogenicity of the bacillus is related to its cell wall components. Pathogenicty of
tuberculosis is attributed to its cell wall component.
1. Cord factor which is a cell wall glycolipid component is aviable on virulent strains
2. Lipoarabinomannan (LAM): It inhibits macrophage activation by interferon LAM
induce macrophages to secrete TNF - which causes fever, weight loss, and tissue
damage and LAM also induce IL-10 which suppresses mycobacteria induced T-cell
3. Complement activated on the surface of mycobacteria may opsinize the organism
and faclitate its uptake by macrophages complement receptor CR3 (mac-1 integrin)
without triggering the respiratory burst necessary to kill the organisms.

4. M. Tuberculosis heat shock protein is similar to human heat shock protein and may
have a role in autoimmune reactions induced by M. tuberculosis.
The bacillus resides in phagosome, which are not acidified in lysosomes. Inhibition of
acidification has been associated with urase secreted by the mycobacteria.
Who are those more susceptible to develop tuberculosis?
Race: North American Indians, black Africans and Asians are much more
susceptible than others
Age: Extremes of ages due to imperfect immune responses
Immunologic and other host factors immunocompromized patients are more
liable to develop tuberculosis. These include patients with steroid therapy or
immunosuppressive drugs, HIV infection, diabetes mellitus, cirrhosis,
malnutrition and damage of lung for example with silicosis etc.

Primary infection: Primary phase of M. tuberculosis infection begins with inhalation of the
mycobacteria most often in the lower segment of the lower and middle lobes and anterior
segment of the lower lobe of the lung. First, the organisms are phagocytosed by alveolar
macrophages and transported by these cells to hilar lymph nodes. Nave macrophages are
unable to kill the mycobacteria, thus they multiply and lyse these host cells, infect other
macrophages and sometimes disseminate through blood to other parts of the lung and
elsewhere in the body.
- After few weeks T-cell mediated immunity is demonstrable by PPD reaction first the CD4
T cells interaction with macrophages secrete interferon, which activate macrophages to
kill intracellular mycobacteria through reactive nitrogen intermediates, including NO
- Second CD 8+ suppressor T-cells lyse macrophages infected with mycobacteria through
a FAS -independent, granular dependent reaction and kill mycobacteria.
- Third CD4-CD8- (double negative) T cell lyse macrophages in a FAS dependant manner
without killing mycobacteria. Lyses of these macrophages results in the formation of
caseating granuloma and direct toxicity to the mycobacteria may contribute to the
necrotic caseous centers.

The primary infection of sub-pleural lesion, the intervening macrophage reactions within
accompanying lymphangitis and the hilar lymph nodes caseous lesions is called primary
complex (often called a Ghon focus).

Hence, fate of primary complex include
i). T-cell mediated immune response induces hypersensitivity to the organisms and controls
95% of primary infection. This is associated with progressive fibrosis and calcification of
persistent caseous debris. Moreover, most bacilli die but few remain viable for years until
the persons immune response fails.
However, if the infected person is immunologically immature, as in a young child or
immunocompromized (eg. AIDS patients) the course of this primary infection is quite
different. Such persons lack the capacity to coordinate integrated hypersensitivity and
cell- mediated immune responses to the organism and thus often lack the capacity to
contain the infection. Granulomas are poorly formed or not formed at all, and infection
progresses at the primary site in the lung, the regional lymph nodes or at multiple sites of
disseminations. This process produces progressive primary tuberculosis.
ii. Progressive primary tuberculous pneumonia: commonly seen in children less than
five years of age but it ours in adults as well in those with suppressed or defective
iii. Subpleural focus may discharge bacilli or antigen into the pleural cavity resulting in the
development of pleural effusion. It is common in adolescent infected with M.
tuberculosis for the first time.
Hilar or mediastinal groups of lymph nodes enlargement with caseous necrosis that
may result in:
a. Obstruction of the bronchus by the enlarged lymph nodes leading to lobar collapse.
b. The caseous hilar lymph node may penetrate the bronchial wall and resulting in
rupture of the wall with pouring of caseous materials into the bronchus hence,
tuberculosis broncho-pneumonia ensues.
iv. The caseous materials may be disseminated to other parts of the body via blood streams.

Miliary tuberculosis
It refers to disseminated sites that produce multiple, small yellow nodular lesions in several
organs. The term miliary emphasizes the resemblance of the lesion to millet seeds. The
lungs, lymph nodes, kidneys, adrenals, bone marow, spleen, menings and liver are common
sites for miliary lesions.

v. Seeding of the bacilli in lungs, bones, kidneys, fallopian tubes, bladder, epididimis etc,
that may persist in and their subsequent reactivation produces destructive, necrotizing
granulmatious disease, sometimes known as end organ tuberculosis.

Others sites of primary tuberculosis infection
i. Intestinal primary infection
The primary complex is similar to that of the lungs the initial site may be in the gum with
lymphatic spread of bacilli to the cervical lymph nodes the commonest location for the
primary lesion is the illocaecal region with local mesenteric node involvement.
ii. Lymph nodes
Tuberculous lymph adenitis is the most common type of extra pulmonary tuberculosis
that frequently involves the cervical groups of lymph nodes with enlargement, and
subsequent periadenitis followed by matting and eventual ulcerations if left untreated.
iii. Skin is also involved in various forms of tuberculosis

Post -primary (secondary) tuberculosis
Conventionally the term post-primary tuberculosis is used for lung infections occurring 5
years or more after the primary infection. If an adult acquires TB for the first time, it presents
as post primary not Primary manifestation. The commonest sites for post primary
tuberculosis are the posterior or apical segment of the upper lobe and the superior segment
of the lower lobe and their predilection for the anatomy location is due to good ventilation.
Hilar lymph node enlargement is not usually recorded. Hypersensitivity reaction is well-
developed and it thus, restricts the granulomatous reactions locally. Post primary
Tuberculosis is characterized by cavitary and fibrosing lesions. Pulmonary and bronchial
arteries around caseous cavities are occluded by endarteritis obliterans where the wall of
the artery may weaken resulting in aneurysm formation (mycotic aneurism) that may
occasionally rupture and cause hemoptosis.
Post primary (2
) tuberculosis in endemic countries occurs due to re-infection or reactivation
of previously residing bacilli. In non-endemic (uncommon) countries, reactivation
phenomenon is more important.
Infected sputa may be swallowed resulting in tuberculous ulcer in the larynx or small
Secondary amyloidosis is a common complication of chronic tuberculosis. Certain
tissues are relatively resistant to tuberculous infection, so it is rare to find tubercles in
the heart, skeletal muscle, thyrord and pancreas.

M. tuberculosis and M. avium intracellulare lesions in AIDS
Mycobacteria infection in AIDS patients can take three forms depending on the degree of
1. HIV infected individuals often have primary and secondary M. tuberculosis infection with
the usual well-formed granulomas and acid fast my cobacteria are few in number and
Often difficult to find under microscopy.
2. When HIV positive patient develop AIDS with moderate immunosuppression (less than
200 CD4+ heper T-cell /mm
) which is characterized by failure of helper T-cells to
elaborate lymphokines and the relative increase in the number of CD 8+ cytotoxic T-cells
may also cause macrophage destruction in the M. tuberculosis lesions. This results in
less well-formed granulomas, and more frequently necrotic material that contain more
abundant acid-fast organisms histologically.
Sputum is positive for acid-fast bacilli in 31%-82% of patients with AIDS. Extra
pulmonary tuberculosis occurs in 70% of such patients involving lymph nodes, blood,
CNS and bowel.
3. Opportunistic infection with M. avium- interacellurare occurs in severely immuno
suppressed patients (less than 60 CD4
cells /mm
. Most of these infections originate in
the gastrointestinal tract. These infections are usually widely disseminated throughout
the reticuloendothelial systems causing enlargement of involved lymph nodes, liver and
spleen. The organisms are present in large numbers as many as 10
organism per
gram of tissue. Granulomas, lymphocytes and tissue destruction are rare.
Differences between primary and postprimary tuberculosis
primary TB post primary TB
mainly affected ages children adults
Hilar node involvements Usual uncommon
type IV reaction less developed more developed
tissue lesions diffuse disease localized disease
Frequency Infrequent Dominant (>80%)

Diagnosis of tuberculosis include:
Zeihl Neelsen stain for Acid fast bacilli
Fine needle aspiration cytology
Exsional biopsy

V. Leprosy

Definiton: Leprosy or Hansen disease is a slowly progressive infection caused by
Mycobacterium leprae affecting the skin and peripheral nerves and resulting mainly in
lesions in upper respiratory tract.

it grows best at 32-34
C of the temperature of human skin.
Like M. tuberculosis, M leprae secrets no toxins but its virulence is based on properties
Classification based on host immune responses. Leprosy is a bipolar disease. Two
may usually deteriorate to lepromatous leprosy. Patients with tuberculoid leprosy form
test is strongly positive and this is effected largely by CD4
type 1 helper T-cell that
secretes IL-2 & interferon .
stuffed with large numbers of mycobacteria (multibacillary disease). Lepromatous
leprosy lesions lack CD4
type I T-cell at their margins but in stead contain many CD8
suppressor T-cell in a diffuse pattern. The CD8
suppressor T-cell secrete IL-10, which
antigen antibody complexes in lepromatous leprosy leads to erythema nodosum
leprosum, a life threatening vasculitis, and glomerulonephrits

those with tuberculoid leprosy.

Table: Differences between tuberculoid and lepomatous leprosy
Tuberculoid leprosy Lepromatous leprosy
Epitheoid granuloma without giant cell Active macrophages, with every many bacilli
Dense zone of lymphocyte infiltration
around granuloma
Scanty and diffuse
Nerves destroyed by granulomas May show neuronal damage but not infiltration
or cuffing
No clear sub-epidermal zone Clear sub-epidermal zone
Bacilli in granuloma are not seen Numerous bacilli 5+ or 6+
Few macules + plaques with well defined
Macules, papules, plaques and nodules
present with vague edges
Lesions distributed asymmetrically Lesions distributed symmetrically
hair loss no hair loss
Lesions are anesthetic Lesions are not anesthetic
Nerve thickening often singly and early Nerve thickening is symmetrical and late
(stocking & glove patterns)
First manifestation may be neural First manifestation never neuronal
Lepromin test is strongly positive Lepromin test is negative

Clinical course and complications
growth of M.leprae.

VI. Syphilis

Definition: Syphilis is a systemic infection caused by the spirochete Treponema pallidium,

examination and immunofluorescence technique.

The organism invades mucosa directly possibly aided by surface abrasions following
develops at the site of infection usually the external genetalia but also lips and anorectal
region. Within hours, the T. pallidum pass to regional lymph nodes and gain access to
systemic circulations. Thereafter, the disease is unpredictable. Its incubation period is
about 3 weeks.
syphilis are
A. Obliterative endarteritis
B. Plasma cell rich mononuclear cell infiltrates.
The endarteritis is secondary to the binding of spirochetes to endothelial cells mediated
by fibronectin molecules bound to the surface of the spirochetes. The mononuclear
infiltrates are immunologic response.
Host humeral and cellular immune responses may prevent the formation of chancre on
subsequent infections with T. pallidum but are insufficient to clear the spirochetes.

Morphology: Syphilis is classified into three stages

Primary syphilis (chancre):
than two week cannot be reinfected by a challenge.

Secondary syphilis:
the pharynx and genitalia, which is highly infectious.

Condylomata lata: - which is papular lesions in moist areas such as axillae, perineum,
vulva and scrotum, which are stuffed with abundant spirochetes.
Generalized lymphadenopathy and the uncommon swelling of epithrochlear lymph
nodes have long been associated with syphilis.
more episodes of relapses may show a more granulomatous histology in skin lesions
and progress to the next stage.

Tertiary syphilis:
The three basic forms of tertiary syphilis are:

1. Syphilitic gummas - there are grey white rubbery masses of variable sizes. They occur
scarring as a result of gummas may cause a distinctive hepatic lesion known as hepar
sabre tibia
- Histologically, gummas look like a central coagulative necrosis characterized by
peripheral granumatous responses. TheTrepanosomas are scanty in these gummas
and difficult to demonstrate.
2. Cardiovascular syphilis
scarring and secondary atherosclerosis. Endartereritis and periaortitis of the vasa
dilate and form aneurysm and eventually rupture classically in the arch.
3. Neurosyphilis:
- occurs in about 10% of untreated patients. The neurosyphllis comprises of
i. Meningiovascular syphilis particularly in base of brain
subsequent atrophy.

iii. Tabes dorsalis Result of damage by the spirochetes to the sensory nerves in
absence of deep tendon reflexes

Congenital syphilis
This infection is most severe when the mother's infection is recent. Treponemas do
not invade the placental tissue or the fetus until the fifth month of gestation (since
immunologic competence only commences then) syphilis causes late abortion, still
birth or death soon after delivery or It may persist in latent forms to become apparent
only during childhood or adult life.
The out come of congenital syphilis depends on stage of maternal infection (i.e. the
degree of maternal spirochataemia). In primary and secondary stages, the fetus is
heavily infected and may die of hydrops in utero or shortly after birth. Liver and
pancrease show diffuse fibrosis. The placentis is heavy, and pale with plasmacytic
villitis. After maternal second stage, the effects of congenital syphilis are progressively
less severe.
Less dramatic visceral disease, papular lesions on skin and mucosae such as the
nose snuffles, may be seen with Huchinton's teeth, and interstial keratitis.
Children infected in utero who are sero -positive show no lesions until two or more
years after birth are classified as having late congenital syphilis. The late congenital
syphilis is distinctive for the triads: Interstial keratitis; Hutchinson teeth and Eight
nerve deafness

VII. Malaria

Malaria is caused by the intracellular protozoan parasite called Plasmodium species and
plasomodium Faliprium is the worldwide infections that affect 100 million people and kill 1 to
1.5 million people yearly. P.Falciparium and P.Vivax, P. ovale, and P.malarie represent
60%, 49 %, <1.0% and reported cases respectively in Ethiopia. P. falciparum cause high
parasitmias, severe anemia, cerebral symptoms, and pulmonary edma and death.

Pathogenesis (P.Falciparum):
Infected humans produce gametocytes that mosquitoes acquire on feeding. Within these
insects body, the organism produces sporozites, which the mosquito transmits to human
when it feeds

Malarial sporozites after being released in the blood within minutes attach to a serum
protein thrombosroridin and properidine located on the basolateral surface of
hepatocytes. These sporozites multiply and release merozytes by rupturing liver cells.
Once released, P. falciparum merozites bind by a parasite lactin like molecule to on the
surface of red blood cells
Within 2 to3 weeks of hepatic infection, merozites rupture from their host hepatocytes
and invade erythrocytes establishing erytrocytic phase of malarial infection.
The merozites feed on hemoglobin grow and reproduce within erythrocytes. Repeated
cycles of parasitemia occur with subsequent ruptures of these cells with resultant clinical
manifestations such as chills, fever etc.
P. Vivax merozites however, bind by homologous lectin to the Duffy antigen on RBC so
many cases who are Duffy negative are resistant to this infection.
HLA B53 associated resistance in some Africans is related to the ability of HLA B53 to
present the liver stage specific malarial antigen to cytotoxic T-cells, which then kill
malarial, infected hepatocytes.
Individuals with sickle cell trait are resistant to malaria because the red cells that are
parasitized in these individuals are removed by the spleen.
Most malarial parasites infect new RBC & some develop to sexual form called
gametocytes and the mosquito when it takes this blood meal the cycle continues.

Spleen enlarged upto 1000gm (normally 150grams) and this splenomegaly can be
attributed to increased phagocytosis in splenic reticuloendothelial cells in chronic
malaria. The parenchyma imparts grey or blue discolouration due to hemozoin.
Liver kuffer cells are heavily laden with malarial pigments, parasites, and cellular debris.
Pigmented phagocytes may be dispersed through out bone marrow, lymph nodes,
subcutaneous tissues and lungs.
Malignant cerebral malaria: Patients with cerebral malaria have increased amount of
inter-cellular adhesion molecules (ICAM- 1). These patients manifest diffuse symmetric
encephalopathy; brain vessels are plugged with parasitized red cells. There are ring
hemorrhages related to local hypoxia. Cerebral involvement by P. falciparum causing
80% of childhood death is due to adhesion of the P. falciparum parasite to endothelial
cells with in the brain.

Hypoglycemia- result from failure of hepatic gluconeogenesis & glucose consumption by the
host and the parasite lactic acidosis -due to anaerobic glycolysis, non cardiogenic
pulmonary edema, renal impairment, anemias etc

P. falciparum, the cause of malignant malaria produces much more aggressive and lethal
disease than the other human malarias. This organism is distinguished from other malarial
parasites in four aspects.
1) It has no secondary exoerythocytic (hepatic) stage
2) It parasitizes erythrocytes of any stage, causing marked parasitmia and anemia. In other
types of malaria only subpopulations of erythrocytes are parasitized, and thus low level
parasitemias and more modest anemias occur. P. Vivax and P>Ovale attack immature
erythrocytes while P. malarie attack senescent cells.
3) There may be several parasites in single erythrocyte
4) P. falciparum alters the flow characteristics and adhesive qualities of infected
erythrocytes so that they adhere to the endothelial cells of small blood vessels frequently
produce severe ischemia. Infected red cells sequester inside the small blood vessels at
the same time P. falciparum infected RBCS may also adhere to uninfected red cells to
form rosettes. The process of cytoadhernce and rosetting are central to the
pathogenesis of falcparum malaria in the other three " benign" malarias sequestrations
does not occur and all stages of parasites development are evident on peripheral blood
P. falciparum invades erythroytes of all ages and is associated with high level
parasitemia whereas, P. vivax, P.ovale and P.malariae show predilection for either old
red cells or reticuloytes & level of parasitmias seldom exceeds 2 percent.

Malaria in pregnancy
In pregnancy, malaria may be associated with hypoglycemia, fetal distress syndrome and
low birth weight. Congenital malaria can occur rarely. P. falcparum malaria is an important
cause of fetal death. Congenital malaria occurs in fewer than 5% of newborns.

Malaria in children
Most of the estimated 1-3 million persons who die of falciparum malaria each year are
young African children. Convulsion, coma, hypoglycemia, metabolic acidosis and severe
anemia are relatively common.

Transfusion malaria
Malaria can be transmitted by blood transfusion, needle -stick injury, sharing of needles by
infected drug addicts, or organ transplants. The incubation period is short because there is
no pre-erythrocytic stage of development.

Complications of malaria include:
Tropical splnomegaly syndrome (Hyperreactive malarial splenomegaly),
Burkitt's lymphoma and EBV infection
Quartan malarial nephropathy
Black water fever
Algid malaria

VIII. Leishmaniasis

Definition: Chronic inflammatory disease of skin, mucous membranes or viscera caused by
obligate intracellular Kinetoplastid protozoal parasites (Leishmania species) transmitted
through infected sand fly.
Leishmanial infections like with other intracellular organism (including mycobactria,
histoplasma, toxoplasma and tryprosoma) is exacerbated by AIDS.
Different leishmanial parasites in new and old world appeared to show tropism related to
temperature, because parasites that cause visceral disease grow at 37% in vitro
whereas parasite that cause multiple diseases grow only at 34
Leishmania are phagocytozed by macrophage and acidity within phagolysosome
induces them to transform into amastigate from promatigate by losing flagella.
Leismanial amastigotes are the only protozoal parasites that survive and reproduce in
macrophage phagolysosomes, which have a PH of 4.5. Amastigotes are protected from
the intravascular acid by a proton -transforming ATPase which maintains the intracellular
parasite PH at 6.5
Leismanial parasites have two glycocongugates, which appeared important in their
virulence. The first is lipophosphoglycans that are glycolipids & bind C
3b and

Organisms resist lysis by complement C
but are phagocytozed by macrophages
through complement receptors CR1 and CR3
Lipophosphoglycans may also protect the parasite within phagolysosomes by supplying
oxygen radical and by inhibiting lysosmal enzymes.
Like M. laprae severity of disease is determined by host immune response.

Parasites specific to CD+T-cells of TH
class may secrete interferon gamma which along
with TNF- secreted by other macrophages activates phagocytes to kill the parasites
through toxic metabolites of oxygen or nitric acid (or both). In contrast, down regulation of
the immune response that lead to anergy and progressive diseases may be caused by

parasite specific CD4+T cells of T helper class 2 that secrete IL-4 which inhibits
macrophages activation by interferon gamma and inhibits secretion of TNF .

Visceral leishmaniasis (L.donovanni & L.chagasi) macrophages of RES are invaded so
hepatosplenomegly, lymphadenopathy, pancytopenia, fever & weight loss,
hyperpigmentation of the skin (kalazar, black fever) glomerulonephritis
(mesangioproliferative) and in advanced cases amyloid deposits.

Cutaneous leishmaniasis
Localized single ulcer on exposed skin (slowly expanding and irregular borders, usually
heals within 6 months by involution. The lesion is granulomatous.

Diffuse cutaneous leishmaniasis
Lesions of diffuse cutaneous leishmaniasis resembles lepromatous leprosy nodules. The
lesions do not ulcerate but contain vast aggregates of foamy macrophages filled with
leishmania. The patients are usually anergic not only to Leshmania but also to other skin
antigens and the disease respond poorly to therapy.

It is the most important helmenthic disease infecting 200 million people & killing 250,000

Life cycle: Schistosomal larval, (cercaria) & penetrate human skin. Ghycocalyx that protect
the organism from osmotic is shed but it activates complement by alternative pathway.
Schistosoms migrate into peripheral vasculature transverse to the lung and little in the portal
venous system where they develop into adult male and female schistosomes. Females
produce hundreds of eggs per day around which granulmas and fibrosis form the major
manifestation in schistosomiasis. Some schist some eggs are passed from the portal veins
through the intestinal wall into the colonic lumen are shed with the feces and released into
fresh water, form to miracidia that infect the snail to complete the life cycle.

1. S. mansoni eggs cause liver disease in multiple ways. The schistosome eggs are direct
2. Carbohydrate antigens of the eggs induce macrophage accumulation and granulomas
formation mediated by TNF only TH
and TH
helper cells.
helper T-cells are responsible for eosinophilla mastocytosis and high level of serum
in human schistosomiasis, because these cells secrete IL-3 and IL-4, which stimulate
mastocytosis and IL-5, which is the growth factor for eosinophils. Resistance to
reinfection by schistosomes after treatment correlates with IgE levels whereas,
eosinophile major basic proteins may destroy larvae schistsomula.
3. Eggs release factors that stimulate lymphocytes to secrete a lymphokine that stimulate
fibroblast proliferation and portal fibrosis the exuberant fibrosis which is out of proportion
to the injury caused by the eggs and granucoma, occurs in 5% of persons infected with
schistosomes and cause severe portal hypertension esophageal varicoses and ascites -
the hallmark of severe schistosomiasis.

White granulomas scattered in the liver and gut. The center of the granuloma is the
schistosome eggs. The granuloma degenerate overtime and undergo fibrosis and
calcification. The liver is darken by regurgitated pigments from the schistosome gut which
like malaria pigment are iron negative and accumulate in kuffer cells and splenic
Severe infection (s. mansoni & S. Japanicum)
Colonic pseudopolyps
Liver surface is bumpy and its cut section shows granuloma and wide spreading fibrous
portal enlargement without distortion of the intervening parenchyma.
Portal fibrosis (PIPE-stem fibrosis) many of these portal triads lack a vein lumen causing
perisinusoidal portal hypertension and severe congestive splenomegaly, esophageal
varices. Schistome eggs diverted to the lungs through portal collateral may produce
granulomatous pulmonary arteritis with intimal hyperplasia progressive arterial obstruction
and ultimately heart failure (cor pulmonale).
Patients with hepatosplenic Schistosomiasis have also increased frequency of
mesangioproliferative glomerulonephritis or membranous glomerulonepritis in which

glomeruli contain deposits of immunoglobulins and compliments but rarely schstosomal

S. hamatobium infection
Massive egg depositions and early granuloma formation that when erode the vasculature
(hamaturia). Latter the granuomas calcify and develop a sandy appearance and in severe
cases, it causes concentric rim on the wall of the bladder forming calcified bladder on x- rays
When the urinary inflammation involves the ureteral orifices, it causes obstructive
hydronephrosis and chronic pylonehphritis. Urinary schistosomiasis is also associated with
squamous cell carcinoma of the bladder that is commonly seen in Egypt.

X. Fungal Infections

There are 100,000 known fungi and only few infect humans mostly opportunistically. Only
few are involved in human diseases because most fungi are destroyed by cell-mediated
immune responses however, humoral immunity plays little or no role.
Predisposing factors for fungal infections include:
Corticosteroid administration, acquired or congenital immunodeficiency states, defects in
neutrophillic and macrophage functions
Fungal infections are divided into superficial and deep fungal infections (mycosis). Here
are few examples of systemic fungal infections

1. Candidiasis (Moniliasis)
Normally found in mouth, skin and gastrointestinal tracts. It is the most common fugal
infection mostly caused by (C. albicans). It affects locally the skin, nail and mucous
membranes and it grows best in warm, moist surface and cause vaginitis, diaper rash &
oral trush. Systemic candidiasis widespread in persons with depressed immune
responses including lymphohemopiotic malignancy, immunosuppressive therapies and
broad-spectrum antibiotic usage as well as patients with dialysis, cardiac surgery, IV
drug abusers.

Candida has molecules on its surface that mediates its adherence to tissues including
1) A homologue to human CR3 integrin
2) A lectin that binds sugars on epithelial cells

3) Mannose containing protein that binds to lectin like molecule on epithelial cells

Finally, the transition of yeast to hyphal forms is important to fungal virulence because the
hyphae appear to spear their way out of cells, which engulf them.

Oral trush & vaginitis are superficial lesions characterized by white patches (or
fluffy membrane)
Cutaneous eczematous lesion: Seen in moist area such as between fingers, &
toes and in inguinal areas, inflamammary folds and ano-genital regions. These
lesions may contain acute and chronic inflammations with micro abscesses but in
their chronic states granulomatous inflammations may develop.
Invasive candidiasis: seen in Immunosuppression. Many organs may be involved
for examples include kidney with micro abscesses in 90%, and right side candidal
endocarditis. The brain, liver subcutis etc may be involved with micro abscesses.

2. Cryptococcosis

Cryptococcos neoformans is encapsulated yeast. It causes menigioencephalitis in normal
individuals but more frequently in patients with AIDS, leukemias, lymphomas, SLE,
Hodgkins lymphomas and transplant recipients and those on steroid therapy.

Found in soil and droppings of birds (peogons): Three factors associated with virulence
1) Capsular polysaccharides
2) Resistant to killing by alveolar macrophages
3) Production of phenol oxidase, which consumes host epinephrine oxidase system.
This enzyme consumes host epinephrines in the synthesis of fungal melanin
thus, preventing the fungus from epinephrine oxidase system
C. neoformans affect brain because of CSF lacks the alternative pathway complement
components that binds to carbohydrate capsule and facilitates phagocytosis and killing by
Polymorphonuclear leukocytes.

Lung is the primary site of localization with minor or asymptomatic presentation; here solitary
granulomatous lesions may appear.

The major pathologic changes are in the CNS involving meninges, cortical grey matter and
basal ganglia. The tissue response to C. neoformans is extremely variable. In
immunosupressed patients, the organisms may evoke no inflammatory reactions so;
gelatinous masses of fungi grow in the meninges or in small cysts within the grey matter
(soap bubble lesion)

3. Aspergillosis
Aspargillus is a ubiquitous mold that causes allergies in otherwise healthy persons and
serious sinusitis, pneumonia and fungemia in neutropenic persons. Aspargillus form fruiting

Aspargillus species have three toxins:
Aflatoxin: Aspargillus species may grow on surfaces of peanuts and may be a major
cause of cancer in Africa.
Resrictocin and mitogilin: They inhibit protein synthesis by degrading MRNA
Mitogilin: It also induce IgE production so may be associated with allergic
Alveolitis by inducing type III & IV reactions, allergic bronchopulmonary aspargillosis
which often-in asthmatic that eventually leads to COLD.

Colonizing Aspargilosis (Aspargiloma): It implies growth of fungus in pulmonary cavity
with minimal or no invasion of the tissues. The cavity usually result from the pre-existing
tuberculosis, bronchiactasis, old infracts and abscesses,
Invasive Aspargilosis It is an opportunistic infection confined to immunosupressed and
debilitated hosts. Common sites of disseminations include the heart valves, brain and
The Aspargilus Species have a tendency to invade blood vessels and thus, areas of
hemorrhages and infarction are usually superimposed on necrotizing inflammatory reactions

4. Histoplasmosis
- The causative organism H. capsulatum is recovered from dust particles of soil, bird or
bat droppings contain small spores (micro conidia).
- Histoplasmosis and Coccidiomycosis resemble pulmonary tuberculosis and both are
causedby fungi that are thermally dimorphic (hyphae and yeast forms)

- Natural history of histoplasmosis include.
1) Self limited with subsequent coin lesions on X-ray films
2) Chronic progressive secondary lung disease in lung apices
3) Localized lesion in extra pulmonary site including mediastinum, adrenals, liver and
4) Widely disseminated disease especially in immunocompromised individuals

Histopasma yeasts are phagocytosed by unstamulated macrophages and multiply in
phagosomes and lyse host cells. Histopasma infection is controlled by T helper cells.
Subsequently secreted interferon gamma activates macrophages to kill intracellular yeasts.
Tumour necrotizing factor alpha (TNF-) is also secreted to kill histoplasma. Lacking cellular
immunity, patients with AIDS are susceptible to disseminated disease.

Granulomatous inflammation with areas of solidifications that may liquefy subsequently.
The lesion may undergo fibrosis spontaneously or with drug therapy in the lungs.
Fulminant disseminated histoplasmosis is seen in immunocompromized individuals
where immune granulomas are not formed and mononuclear phagocytes are stuffed with
numerous fungi throughout the body.

XI. Viral Infections

Mechanisms of viral injury:

Viruses damage host cells by entering the cell and replicating at the hosts expense.
Viral tropism -in part caused by the binding of specific viral surface proteins to particular
host cell surface receptor proteins.
The second major cause of viral tropism is the ability of the virus to replicate inside some
cells but not in others. For example, JC papovavirus, which causes leukoencephalopathy is
restricted to oligoderdroglia, in the CNS.
Once attached the entire viron or a portion containing the genome and the essential
polymerase penetrate into the cell cytoplasm in one of the three ways
1) Translocation of the entire virus across the plasma membrane
2) Fusion of viral envelop with the cell membrane or

3) Receptor -mediated endocytosis of the virus and fusion with endosomal

Within the cell, the virus uncoats separating its genome from its structural component and
losing its infectivity. Viruses also use host system for viral synthesis.
- Newly synthesized viral genome and capsid proteins are then assembled into progeny
virons in the nucleus or cytoplasm and are released directly (unencapsulated viruses)
or bud through the plasma membrane (encapsulated viruses)
- Viral infection can be abortive with incomplete replicative cycle
- Latent in which the virus (eg herpes zoster) persists in a cryptic state within the dorsal
root ganglia and then present with painful shingles
- Or persistent in which virons are synthesized continuously with or without altered cell
function (eg. Hepatitis B)
- Viruses kill host cell in a number of ways
- Viruses infect host cell DNA ,RNA or protein synthesis, ex. Poliovirus
- Viral proteins insert into the host cells plasma membrane and directly damage its
integrity or promote cell fusion ex HIV ,measles herpes viruses (direct cytotopathic
- Viruses replicate effiently and lyse host cell ex yellow fever virus in liver and neurons
by poliovirus.
- Viral proteins on the surface of the host cell are recognized by the immune system,
and the host cytotoxic lymphocytes then attack the virus-infected cells ex hepatitis B
virus infection, and respiratory synaytial virus.
- Viruses damage cells involved in host antimicrobial defense leading to secondary
infection for example viral damaged respiratory epithelium allows subsequent bacterial
pneumonias and HIV depletes CD4+ T cell predisposing to opportunistic infection.
Example poliovirus cause motor neuron injury and atrophy of distal skeletal muscle.
- Slow virus infection cause in severe progressive disease after a long latency period for
example sub acute pan encephalitis caused by measles virus.
- Some viruses induce cellular proliferation and transformation example HBV, HPV,
EBV which result in neoplasm.

XII. Exercise

Describe the etiology, pathogenesis, morphologic changes and clinical effects of each of the
above mentioned diseases.

1. otran RS, Kumar V, Collins T. Robins pathologic basis of diseases. Philadilphia, J.B.
Saunders Company. 6th edition 1999
2. acSween RNM, Whaley K. Muirs Textbook of pathology. London, Edward Arlond 13

edition 1992
3. ubin-E, Farber-JC. Pathology Philadelphia, J.B. Lippincott Company 6
edition 1994
4. ey NC, Dey TK. A Textbook of Pathology Calcatta, Messers Allied agency 10
5. anson-BAHR-PEC, Apted FIC. Mansons tropical diseases, London, Buttler and Tanner
Ltd, 18
edition 1985

I. Learning objectives:

At the end of this chapter, students are expected to:
1. Differentiate neoplastic lesions from non-neoplastic ones.
2. Contrast benign from malignant tumours.
3. Describe methods and mechanisms of metastasis.
4. List the etiologic factors in carcinogenesis.
5. Understand clinical effects of neoplasms
6. Know the diagnostic modalities for cancers

II. Definition amd Nomenclature

Literally, neoplasia means new growth and technically, it is defined as abnormal mass of
tissues the growth of which exceeds and persists in the same excessive manner after
cessation of the stimulus, evoking the transformation.

Nomenclature: Neoplasms are named based upon two factors
on the histologic types : mesenchymal and epithelial
on behavioral patterns : benign and malignant neoplasms
Thus, the suffix -oma denotes a benign neoplasm. Benign mesenchymal neoplasms
originating from muscle, bone, fat, blood vessel nerve, fibrous tissue and cartilages are
named as Rhabdomyoma, osteoma, lipoma, hemangioma, neuroma, fibroma and
chondroma respectively. Benign epithelial neoplasms are classified on the basis of cell of
origin for example adenoma is the term for benign epithelial neoplasm that form glandular
pattern or on basis of microscopic or macroscopic patterns for example visible finger like or
warty projection from epithelial surface are referred to as papillomas.
This nomenclature has, however, some exceptions
(I) Nonneoplastic misnomers hematoma, granuloma, hamartoma
(II) Malgnant misnomers melanoma, lymphoma, seminoma, glioma, hepatoma.

Malignant neoplasm nomenclature essentially follows the same scheme used for benign
neoplasm with certain additions. Malignant neoplasms arising from mesenchymal tissues
are called sarcomas (Greed sar =fleshy). Thus, it is a fleshy tumour. These neoplasms are
named as fibrosarcoma, liposarcoma, osteosarcoma, hemangiosarcoma etc.
Malignant neoplasms of epithelial cell origin derived from any of the three germ layers are
called carcinomas.
Eg. Ectodermal origin: skin (epidermis squamous cell carcinoma, basal cell
carcinoma)Mesodermal origin: renal tubules (renal cell carcinoma).Endodermal origin:
linings of the gastrointestinal tract (colonic carcinoma) Carcinomas can be furtherly
classified those producing glandular microscopic pictures are called Aden carcinomas and
those producing recognizable squamous cells are designated as squamous cell carcinoma
etc furthermore, when possible the carcinoma can be specified by naming the origin of the
tumour such as renal cell adenocarcinoma etc
Tumors that arise from more than tissue components:
- Teratomas contain representative of parenchyma cells of more than one germ layer,
usually all three layers. They arise from totipotential cells and so are principally
encountered in ovary and testis.
- Mixed tumors containing both epithelial and mesenchymal components Examples
include pleomorphic adenoma and fibroadenoma

III. Characteristics of Benign and Malignant Neoplasms

The difference in characteristics of these neoplasms can be conveniently discussed under
the following headings:

1. Differentiation & anaplasia
2. Rate of growth
3. Local invasion
4. Metastasis

1. Differentiation and anaplasia

Differentiation refers to the extent to which parenchymal cells resemble comparable
normal cells both morphologically and functionally. Thus, well-differentiated tumours

cells resemble mature normal cells of tissue of origin. Poorly differentiated or
undifferentiated tumours have primitive appearing, unspecialized cells. In general,
benign neoplasms are well differentiated. Malignant neoplasms in contrast, range from
well differentiated, moderately differentiated to poorly differentiate types. Malignant
neoplasm composed of undifferentiated cells are said to be anaplastic, literally anaplasia
means to form backward.
Morphology of anaplastic cell includes large Pleomorphic; hyperchromatic nucleus with
high nuclear cytoplasmic ratio 1:1(normally 1:4 to 1:6). The cell usually reveals large
nucleoli with high and often abnormal mitoses. Tumour giant cells and frequent loss of
polarity of epithelial arrangements are encountered.
On functional differentiation, the well differentiated the neoplasm, the more completely it
retains the functional capabilities found in its normal counterparts thus, endocrine
tumours produce hormone (ex. Thyroid, adrenal) so also, well differentiated squamous
cell carcinoma and well differentiated hepatocellular carcinomas produce keratine and
bile respectively.
However, highly anaplastic or undifferentiated cells of what cell tissue of origin come to
resemble each other functionally and morphologically more than the normal cells which
they have arisen this is called chemical convergence.

2. Rate of growth

Most benign tumours grow slowly whereas; most malignant tumours grow rapidly
sometimes, at erratic pace. Some benign tumours for example uterine leiomyoma
increase in size during pregnancy due to probably steroidal effects (estrogen) and
regress in menopause. In general, the growth rate of neoplasms correlate with their
level of differentiation and thus, most malignant neoplasms grow more rapidly than do
benign neoplasms. On occasions, cancers have been observed to decrease in size and
even spontaneously disappear. Examples include renal cell carcinoma, malignant
melanoma, choriocarcinoma.

3. Local invasion

Nearly all benign neoplasms grow as cohesive expansile masses that remains localized
to their site of origin and do not have the capacity to invade or metastasize to distant
sites, as do malignant neoplasms.
Rims of fibrous capsules encapsulate most benign neoplasms. However, hemangiomas
and neurofibromas are exceptions. Thus, such encapsulations tend to contain the

benign neoplasms as a discrete, rapidly palpable and easily movable mass that can
easily surgically enucleated.
The growth of malignant neoplasms is accompanied by progressive infiltration, invasion
and destruction of the surrounding tissue. Generally, they are poorly demarcated from
the surrounding normal tissue (and a well-defined cleavage plane is lacking).
Next to the development of metastasis, invasiveness is the most reliable feature that
differentiates malignant from benign neoplasms.
Even though, malignant neoplasms can invade all tissues in the body, connective
tissues are the favoured invasive path for most malignant neoplasms, due to the
elaboration of some enzymes such as type IV collagnases & plasmin, which is specific to
collagen of basement membrane. Several matrix-degrading enzymes including
glycosidase may be associated with tumour invasion.
Arteries are much more resistant to invasion than are veins and lymphatic channels due
to its increased elastic fibers contents and its thickened wall. Densely compact collagens
such as membranous tendons, and joint capsules. Cartilage is probably the most
resistant of all tissues to invasions and this is may be due to the biologic stability and
slow turnover of cartilage.

Sequential steps in mechanisms of tumor invasion & metastasis:

a. Carcinoma in-situ
b. Malignant cell surface receptors bind to basement membrane components (ex
c. Malignant cell disrupt and invade basement membrane by releasing collagenase
type IV and other protease.
d. Invasion of the extracellular matrix
e. Detachment
f. Embolization
g. Survival in the circulation
h. Arrest
i. Extravasation
j. Evasion of host defense
k. Progressive growth
l. Metastasis

Most carcinomas begin as localized growth confined to the epithelium in which they arise.
As long as this early cancers do not penetrate the basement membrane on which the
epithelium rests such tumours are called carcinoma in-situ.
In those situations in which cancers arise from cell that are not confined by a basement
membrane, such as connective tissue cells, lymphoid elements and hepatocytes, an in-situ
stage is not defined.

4. Metastasis

It is defined as a transfer of malignant cells from one site to another not directly
connected with it (as it is described in the above steps).
Metastasis is the most reliable sign of malignancy. The invasiveness of cancers permits
them to penetrate in to the blood vessel, lymphatic and body cavities providing the
opportunity for spread.
Most malignant neoplasm metastasies except few such as gliomas in the central
nervous system, basal cell carcinoma (Rodent ulcer) in the skin and
dermatofibrosarcoma in soft tissues.
Organs least favoured for metastatic spread include striated muscles and spleen.
Since the pattern of metastasis is unpredictable, no judgment can be made about the
possibility of metastasis from pathologic examination of the primary tumour.
Approximately 30% of newly diagnosed patients with solid tumours (excluding skin
cancers other than melanoma) present with metastasis in the studied populations.

Pathways of spread:

Dissemination of malignant neoplasm may occur through one of the following pathways.
1. Seeding of body cavities and surfaces (transcoelomic spread)
This seeding may occur wherever a malignant neoplasm penetrates into a natural open
field. Most often involved is the peritoneal cavity, but any other cavities such as pleural,
pericardial, sub-arachnoid and joint spaces-may be affected.
Particular examples are krukenberg tumour that is a classical example of mucin
producing signet ring adenocarcinomas arising from gastrointestinal tract, pancreas,
breast, and gall bladder may spread to one or both ovaries and the peritoneal cavities.
The other example is pseudomyxoma peritoni which are mucus secreting adrocarcinoma
arising either from ovary or appendix. These carcinomas fill the peritoneal cavity with a

gelatinous soft, translucent neoplastic mass. It can also be associated with primaries in
the gallbladder and pancreas.

2. Lymphatic spread
Lymphatic route is the most common pathway for the initial dissemination of carcinomas
The pattern of lymph node involvement follows the natural routes of drainage. Lymph
nodes involvement in cancers is in direct proportion to the number of tumour cell
reaching the nodes.
Due to numerous inter connections between vascular and lymphatic channels the
emphasis that used to be given, lymphatic spread for carcinomas and vascular spread
for sarcomas is misreading.
Metastasis to lymph nodes first lodge in the marginal sinus and then extends throughout
the node. The cut surface of this enlarged lymph node usually resembles that of the
primary tumour in colour and consistency. The best examples of lymphatic spread of
malignant neoplasm can be exemplified by breast carcinoma.
-Skip metastasis may occur when local lymph nodes may be by- passed and
occasionally found in lymph node distant from the site of the primary malignant
neoplasm. Skip metastasis happen to occur because of venous lymphatic anastomoses
or because inflammation or radiation has obliterated the lymphatic channels for example
abdominal cancer (gastric cancer) may be initially signaled by supra clavicular (sentinel
A clinical presence of enlarged lymph node is not necessarily synonymous with a
metastasis. Conversely, the absence of tumour cells in reseated lymph nodes does not
guarantee that there is no underlying cancer.

3. Hematogenous spread
Typical for all sarcomas and certain carcinomas- the spread appears to be selective with
seed and soil phenomenon. Lung & liver are common sites of metastasis because they
receive the systemic and venous out flow respectively. Other major sites of
hematogenous spread include brain and bones.
In the circulation, tumour cells form emboli by aggregation and by adhering to circulating
leukocytes particularly platelets. The site where tumour cell emboli lodge and produce
secondary growth is influenced by
Vascular (and lymphatic) drainage from the site of the primary tumour
Interaction of tumour cells with organ specific receptors
The microenvironment of the organ or site, example a tissue rich in protease
inhibitors might be resistant to penetration by tumour cells.

IV. Cancer Epidemiology

The only certain way to avoid cancer is not to be born, to live is to incur the risk.
Thus, In USA one in five deaths is due to cancers. Over the years cancer incidence
increased in males while it slightly decreased in females (due to largely screening
Procedures-cervical, breast etc.). In the studied populations the most common cancer in
males is broncogenic carcinoma while breast carcinoma in females.
Most cancers in adults occur in those over 55 years of age.
Children under 15 years of age however, are susceptible to acute leukemia, central
nervous system tumours, neuroblastoma, wilm's tumour, retinoblastoma, rhabdo
myosarcoma and etc. Acute leukemias and neoplasms of the central nervous system
accounts for about 60% of the deaths.

Geographic factors (geographic pathology):
Specific differences in incidence rates of cancers are seen worldwide.For example,
Stomach carcinoma - Japan
Lung cancer - USA
Skin cancer - New zeland & Australia
Liver cancer - Ethiopia

Environmental factors (occupational hazards) include:
Asbestos-----Lung cancer, mesothelioma,esophagus and, stomach carcinomas;
Vinyl chloride----Angiosarcoma of liver
Benzene ---Leukemias
Cigarette smoking-----Brochogenic carcinomas
Venereal infection (HPV)--Cervical carcinoma

Premalignant disorders
a) Heredity premalignant disorders
Inherited predisposition to cancer is categorized in to three groups:
i. Inherited cancer syndromes (Autosomal dominant) with strong familial history
- Familial retinoblastomas usually bilateral, and a second cancer risk particularly
osteogenic sarcoma. Oncosupressor gene is the basis for this carcinogenesis

- Familial adenomatous polyps of the colon. virtually all cases are fatal to develop
carcinoma of the colon by the age of 50.

ii. Familial cancers:
Evidence of familial clustering of cancer are documented
E.g. Breast, ovarian, colonic, and brain cancers

iii. Autosmal recessive syndromes of defective DNA repair Characterized by
chromosomal or DNA instability syndrome such as xeroderma pigmentosium, Ataxia
telaangietasia, Bloom syndrome and Fanconi anemia

B) Acquired preneoplastic disorders

Regenerative, hyperplasic and dysplastic proliferations are fertile soil for the
origin of malignant neoplasms.
Endometrial hyperplasia - endometrial carcinoma
Cervical dysplasia - cervical cancer
Bronchial dysplasia - bronchogenic carcinoma
Regenerative nodules - liver cancer
Certain non-neoplastic disorders may predispose to cancers.
Chronic atrophic gastritis - gastric cancer
Solar keratosis of skin - skin cancer
Chronic ulcerative colitis - colonic cancer
Leukoplakia of the
oral cavity, vulva and penis - squamous cell carcinoma
Certain types of benign neoplasms
Large cumulative experiences indicate that most benign neoplasms do not become
malignant. However, some benign neoplasms can constitute premalignant conditions.
For example:
Villous colonic adenoma - Colonic cancer

V. Molecular Basis of Cancer (Carcinogenesis)

Basic principles of carcinogenesis:

The fundamental principles in carcinogenesis include
1) Non-lethal genetic damage lies at the heart of carcinogenesis. Such genetic damage
(mutation) may be acquired by the action of environmental agents such as
chemicals, radiation or viruses or it may be inherited in the germ line.
2) The three classes of normal regulatory genes are:
i) The growth promoting proto-oncogenes
Activation of proto-oncogenes activation gives rise to oncogenes (cancer causing
- oncogenes are activated by
- Point mutation
- Chromosomal rearrangements ranslocation Inversion
- Gene amplification
ii) Cancer suppressor genes (anti oncogenes)
Its physiologic role is to regulate cell growth however, the inactivation of cancer
suppressor genes is the key event in cancer genesis
Examples of tumour suppressor genes include-Rb, P53, APC and NF-1&2
iii) Genes that regulate apoptosis
Genes that prevent or induce programmed cell death are also important
variables in the cancer equation. These genes include bcl-2 that inhibits
apoptosis whereas, others such as bax. Bad, and bcl-x5 favour programmed
cell death. Genes that regulate apoptosis may be dominant as are proto-
oncogenes or may behave as cancer suppressor genes (recessive in nature)
iv) Genes that regulate DNA repair
Inability to DNA repair can predispose to mutations in the genome and hence,
to neoplastic transformations
3) Carcinogenesis is a multifactorial process
at both the phenotypic and genotypic levels.

Types of carcinogenesis:

A large number of agents cause genetic damages and induce neoplastic transformation of
cells. They fall into the following three categories:

a) Chemical carcinogenesis
b) Radiation carcinogenesis
c) Viral carcinogenesis

A) Chemical carcinogenesis

An enormous variety of chemicals may induce tumours and this was exemplified by Sir
Percival Potts observation in the last century that astutely related the increased incidence of
scrotal skin cancer in chimney sweeps to chronic exposure to soot.

Steps involved in chemical carcinogenesis
appropriate dose of a chemical carcinogenic agents to a cell results in the formation of
initiation promotion sequence
Initiation causes permanent DNA damage (mutation) which, is rapid and irreversible.
However, initiation alone is not sufficient for tumour formation and thus, promoters can
induce tumours in initiated cells, but they are non-tumourogenic by themselves.
Furthermore, tumours do not result when a promoting agent applied before, the
initiating agent.
In contrast to the effects of initiators, the cellular changes resulting from the application
of promoters do not affect DNA directly and are reversible.
Promoters render cells susceptible to additional mutations by causing cellular
proliferation. Examples of promoters include phorbol ester, hormones, phenols and

Chemical carcinogenic agents fall into two categories
1. Directly acting compound
These are ultimate carcinogens and have one property in common:
They are highly reactive electrophiles (have electron deficient atoms) that can react
with nucleophilic (electron-rich) sites in the cell. This reaction is non-enzymatic and
result in the formation of covalent adducts (addition products) between the chemical
carcinogen and a nucleotide in DNA.

Electrophilic reactions may attack several electron-rich sites in the target cells
including DNA, RNA, and proteins.
Only a few alkylating and acylating agents are directly acting carcinogens

2. Indirect acting compounds (or pro-carcinogens)
Requires metabolic conversion in vivo to produce ultimate carcinogens capable of
transforming cells.
Most known carcinogens are metabolized by cytochrome p-450 dependent mono-
Examples of this group include polycyclic and heterocyclic aromatic hydocarbones,
and aromatic amines etc.
These chemical carcinogens lead to mutations in cells by affecting the functions of
oncogenes, onco-suppressor genes and genes that regulate apoptosis.

B) Radiation carcinogenesis

Radiant energy whether in form of ultraviolet (UV) sun light or ionizing electromagnetic (X
rays and gamma ( ) rays) and particulates (,, protons and neutrons) radiation can
transform and induce neoplasm in both humans and experimental animals.

Two types of radiation injuries are recognized:

i) Ultraviolet rays (UV light)
UV rays are examples of non-ionizing radiation that cause vibration and rotation of
atoms in biologic molecules
UV rays induce an increased incidence of squamous cell carcinoma, basal cell
carcinoma and possibly malignant melanoma of skin.
Risk factors for developing UV rays related disorders depend on
- Type of UV rays UV type B
- Intensity of exposure
- Quality of light absorbing protective mantle of melanin in the skin
Ex. Australians (queen's land etc.)
UV rays effects on cell nucleus are:
-The carcinogenesis of UV type B rays is attributable to its formation of pyrimidine
dimmers in DNA
- However, UV rays can also cause inhibition of cell division, inactivation of enzymes,
Induction of mutation and sufficient dose kill cells.

As with other carcinogens, UVB also cause mutations on oncogenes and tumour suppressor
genes mutant forms of P53 and ras genes have been detected.

ii) Ionizing radiation

Ionizing radiations are of short wave lengh and high frequency which can ionize
biologic target molecules and eject electrons
Electromagnetic and particulate radiations in forms of theureptic, occupational or
atomic bomb incidents can be carcinogenic
Occupational hazards include:
Many of the poineers in the development of roentegen rays develop skin cancers.Miners
for radioactive elements---lung cancer
Therapeutic irradiations have been documented to be carcinogenic. Thyroid cancer
may result from childhood & infancy irradiation (9%), and by the same taken
radiation therapy for spondylitis may lead to a possible acute leukemia year later.
In atomic bonds dropped in Hiroshima and Nagasaki initially principal cancers were
acute and chronic mylogenous leukemias after a latent of about 7 years solid
tumours such as breast, colon, thyroid and lung cancers) increased in incidence.
In humans, there is a hierarchy of vulnerability of radiation-induced cancers. Most
frequent are the leukemia except CLL, which almost never follow radiation injury.
Cancer of the thyroid follows closely but only in the young. In intermediate category
are cancers of the breast, lungs, and salivary glands
In contrast, skin, bone and gastrointestinal tract are relatively resistant to radiation-
induced neoplasia.

C) Viral and bacterial carcinogenesis

Large groups of DNA and RNA viruses have proved to be oncogenic and there is an
association between infections by the bacterium Helicobacter Pylori and gastric

i) DNA oncogenic viruses
This group includes:
Human Papilloma Virus (HPV)
Epstein Barr Virus (EBV)
Hepatitis B Virus (HBV)

General feature of the oncogenic DNA virus
a) Transforming DNA virus form stable associations with the host cell genome. The
integrated virus is unable to complete its replicative cycle because the viral genes
essential for completion of replication are interrupted during integration of viral DNA
b) Those viral genes that are transcribed early (early genes) in the viral life cycle are
expressed in the transformed cells.

Human papilloma Virus (HPV)
HPV definitely causes benign squamous papilloma (warts) (type 1,2,3,4, 7). It also
implicated in the genesis of squamous cell carcinomas of cervix and anogenital region
(types 16,18 and also 31,33,35,and 51 found in 85% SCC). It is also linked to the
causation of oral and laryngeal cancers.
The HPV DNA integration into host cell is random (viral DNA is found in different
locations), however, the pattern of integration, is clonal (that is the site of integration is
identical within all cells of a given cancer).

Epstein Barr virus (EBV)
Member of the herpes family has been implicated in the pathogenesis of four tumours.
The African form of Burkitt's lymphoma, B- cell lymphomas in immuno suppressed
individuals particularly in those with some cases of Hodgkins disease and Naso
pharyngeal carcinoma.
EBV infects epithelial cell of the oro pharynx and B- lymphocytes. The infection of B- cell
is latent and the latently infected B-cell is immortalized. Several viral genes dysregulate
the normal proliferative and survival signals in latently infects cells for example the latent
membrane protein 1 (LMP-1) prevents apoptosis of B- cells by up regulating the
expression of bc1-2 and it activates growth promoting pathways. Thus, LMP-1 can
induce both cell growth and cell survival. Similarly the EBV- encoded EBNA- gene
transactivates several host genes including cyclin D and members of the src family
EBNA- 2 also activates the transcription of LMP- 1. Thus, it seems that several viral
genes collaborate to render B- cells immortal.
The Association between African Burkett Lymphoma and EBV is quite strong.
More than 90% of African tumours carry the EBV genome
One hundred percent of the patients have elevated antibody titres against viral
capsid antigens

Serum antibody titres against viral capsid antigens are correlated with the risk of
developing the tumour.Several other observations suggested that additional factors
must be involved. In Africa poorly understood co-factor (ex chromic malaria), favor
sustained proliferation of B- cells immortalized by EBV. The actively dividing B- cells
are at increased risk of mutations (t- 8; 14) translocation that juxta - pose C- myc with
one of Immuno- globuline gene loci.

Hepatitis B- virus (HBV)
Strong epidemiologic association prevails between HBV and hepato cellular
Carcinoma. HBV genome, however, does not encode any oncoproteins, and there is
no consistent pattern of integration in the vicinity of any known protomcogeres
The effects of HBV is indirect and possibly multi factorial.
i) By causing chronic liver cell injury and accompanying regenerative hyperplasic
ii) HBV encodes a regulatory element called HBx protein, which disrupts normal growth
control of infected liver cells by transcriptional activation of several growth promoting
genes such as insulin like growth factor II
iii) HBV binds to P53 and appears to interfere with its growth suppressing activities.
Although not a DNA virus hepatitis virus is also strongly linked to the pathogenesis of
hepato cellular carcinoma as evidenced by epidemiologic studies.

ii. RNA oncogenic viruses
Although the study of animal retroviruses has provided spectacular insights to
molecular basis of cancer , only one retrovirus is firmly implicated in the causation
of cancer and it is Human T cells leukemia/ lymphoma virus type 1 (HTLV-1) .
Similar to HIV virus. HTLV-1 has tropism for CD4+T cells > Human infection
requires transmission of infected T cells through sexual intercourse, blood products,
or breast feedings. Leukemia develops after a 20 or 30 years of latency in about 1%
of patients. HTLV-1 is also associated tropical spastic Para paresis.

iii. Helicobacter pylori
There is an association between gastric infections with helicobacter pylori as a
cause of gastric lymphoma. The stronger link is with B cell lymphoma of stomach.
Treatment of H. pylori with antibiotics results in regression of the lymphoma in most
cases. The lymphoma arise from the mucosa associated lymphoid tissues (MALT)
hence, they sometimes are called MALTOMAS. The lymphoid cells reside in the
marginal zones of lymphoid follicles and hence alternatively named as mantle zone

VI. Clinical Features of Tumors
Neoplasms are essentially parasites. In fact, benign lesions are more common than cancers.
Although cancer evaluation may suggest one or the other, the only unequivocal benign
mass is the excised and histopathologically diagnosed one.
Effects of tumour on the host:
Both benigin and malignant neoplasms may cause problems because of
1. location and impingement on adjcent structures
2. functional activities such as hormone synthesis
3. bleeding and secondary infection when they ulcerate through adjacent natural surfaces
4. initiation of acute symptoms caused by either rupture or infarction local and hormonal
For example pituitary adenoma being located in critical location can cause serious
Analogously cancers arising with or metastatic to an endocrine organ may cause an
endocrine in suffiecency by destroying the gland.
Neoplasms in the gut (both bening and malignant may cause obstruction as they
Benign neoplasms more commonly of endocrine origin may produce manifestations by
elaboration of hormones. For example a benign B- cell adenoma of pancreatic islets
less than 1 cm in diameter may produce sufficient insulin to cause fatal hypoglycemia
The erosive destructive growth of cancers or expansile pressure on benign tumour of
any natural surface may cause ulceration secondary infection and bleeding.

5. Cancer cachexia
Cachexia is a progressive loss of body fat and lean body mass accompanied by
profound weakness, anorexia and anemia .The origin of cancer cachexia are obscure
Clinically anorexia is a common problem in patients with cancer. Reduced food intake
has been related to abnormalities in taste and central control of appetite. In patents
with cancer, calorie expenditure often remains high and basal metabolic rate is
increased despite reduced food intake.
The basis of metabolic abnormalities is not fully understood; however, TNF produced
by macrophages and possibly by some tumour cells is the mediator of the wasting
syndrome that accompanies cancer. Other cytokines such as IL-1 and IFN
synergize with TNF
A protein-mobilizing factor has been isolated from the serum of animals and humans
with cancer cachexia

6. Paraneoplastic syndromes
Paraneoplastic syndrome is an aggregate of symptom complexes in cancer - bearing
patients that can not readily be explained either by the local or distant spread of the
tumour or by the elaboration of hormones indigenous to the tissue from which the
tumour arose
Paraneoplastic syndrome occurs in about 10% of patients with malignant disease
Despite its infrequency, the syndrome is important for three reasons:
1. They be the earliest manifestation of an occult neoplasm
2. In affected patients, they may represent significant clinical problems and may even
be lethal.
3. They may mimic metastatic disease and, therefore, confound treatment

Classification of paraneoplastic syndromes
Cushing syndrome Small lung ca, pancreatic ca ACTH and ACTH like
IADH Secretion Small cell lung Ca ADH or atrial natriuretic
Hypercalcimia SCC of lungs, breast ca, renal ca,
Adult T-cell leukemia /lymphoma,
ovarian cancers
Parathyroid hormone
related peptide TGF -, TNF
Hypoglycemia Fibrosarcoma other sarcomas
Insulin or insulin like
Carcinoid syndrome Bronchial adenoma, pancreatic
ca, gastric ca
Serotonins, bradykinins
Polycythemia Renal ca, cerebellar
Hemangioma, liver cancer
Dermatologic disorders such
as acanthosiss nigricans,
Gastric, lung & uterine cancers
Bronchographie ca, breast ca
? immunologic
? immunologic
Vascular and hematologic
Venous thrombosis Pancreatic and bronchogenic cas Mucin that activate clotting
Nonbacterial thrombotic
Advanced cancers Hypercoagulobilty

Hypercalcimia is probably the most common paraneoplastic syndrome and among
endocrinopathies Cushing syndrome is the most common variety of paraneoplastic effect.

Grading and staging of cancers

Grading denotes the level of differentiation whereas, staging expresses the extent of
tumour spread and forcast the clinical gravity of cancers
Grading of a cancer is based on the degree of differentiation of tumour cells and the
number of mitoses within the tumour and presumably correlates to aggressive
character of the neoplasm
Cancers are classified into grades I to IV with increasing anaplasia. Criteria for
individual grades vary with each form of neoplasm
The staging of cancers is based on the size of primary lesions, its extent of spread to
regional lymph nodes and the presence or absence of blood born metastases
Two major staging systems are currently in use are Union internationale contre
cancer (UICC) which utilizes the so- called TNM system T for primary tumour N for
regional lymph node involvement and m for metastasis

The TNM staging varies for each specific form of cancer but there are general principles:

With increasing size, the primary lesion is characterized as T to T4 to is added to
indicate as in - situ lesion.
No for no nodal involvement whereas, N1 -N3 wound denote involvement of an
increasing number and range of nodes
Mo signifies no distant metastasis whereas M1 or sometimes M
indicates the
presence of blood born metastasis

The American joint committee (AJC) employs a somewhat different nomenclature and
divides all cancers into stages to IV incorporating within each of these stages the size of the
primary lesion as well as the presence of nodal spread and the distant metastasis

The staging of neoplastic disease has assumed great importance in the selection of
the best form of therapy for the patient. Indeed, staging has proved to be of greater
clinical value than grading.

VII. Laboratory Diagnosis of Cancer

Every year approach to laboratory diagnosis of cancer becomes more complex more
sophisticated and more specialized with time.

Histologic and cytologic methods:

The laboratory diagnoses of most cancers is not difficult however, border line cases in
no man's land where wise men trade cautiously pose the most difficulties
Clinicians tend to underestimate the important contributions they make in the diagnosis
of neoplasms. Clinical data are invaluable for optimal pathologic diagnosis for example
radiation changes in the skin or mucosa can be similar to cancer and similarly section
taken from a healing fracure can mimic remarkably an osteosarcoma.
The laboratory sample to be diagnosed need to be adequate, representative and well

Several sampling approaches are available:
1. Excisional or incisional biopsy
2. Cytologic smears:
Fine needle aspiration
PAP smear
Fluid cytology
3. Advanced techniques
Flow cytometry
Tumour markers

Excisional biopsy
Selection of an appropriate site for biopsy of a large mass requires awareness that the
margins may not be representative and the center largely necrotic .analogously
disseminated lymphoma involving inguinal lymph nodes that drain large part of the
body often have reactive changes that may mask neoplastic involement.
Appropriate preservation of specimens is obvious thus, formalin for routine fixation
glutaraldehide for electron microscopy prompt refrigration to permit optimal hormone
by receptor analysis

Requesting, quick frozen section" diagnosis is sometimes desirable for determining
(for example in breast carcinoma) for evaluating the margins of an excised cancer to
ascertain that the entire neoplasm has been removed.

Fine needle aspiration
The procedure involves aspirating cell and attendant fluid with a small needle followed
by cytologic examination of the stained smear
This method is used most commonly for the assessment of readily palpable lesions
such as breasts, thyroid and lymph nodes etc.

Cytologic (PAP) smear
This method is widely used for the discovery of carcinoma of the cervix, it also detect
cervical cancers at an in situ stage, and other suspected malignancies such as
endometrial, and bronchogenic carcinomas, bladder and prostatic tumours and gastric
It is also used for the identification of tumour cell in abdominal, pleural joint and
cerebrospinal fluids

Tumour markers
Tumour markers are biochemical indicators of the presence of a tumour. They
include cell surface antigens, cytoplasmic proteins, enzymes and hormones.
Tumour markers can not be construed as primary modalites for the diagnosis of
cancer and thus, act as supportive laboratory tests.
A host of tumour markers have been described and new only appear every year

Selected Tumor Markers
Markers Associated cancers
- Hormones
Human gonadothrphic
hormone (HCG)
Throphoblastic tumours, non seminomatous testicular
Catecholamine Medulary thyroid carcinoma (ca)
Cathecolamines &
Pheochromocytoma & related tumours
Ectopic hormones Paraneoplastic syndromes
On co fetal antigens
fetoprotein Hepatic ca, non seminomatous germ cell tumours of
CEA Ca s of colon, pancrease, lung, stomach and
Prostatic acid phosphatase Prostate cancer
Non specific enolase Small cell cancer of lung, neuroblastoma
Specific proteins
Immunoglobulins Multiple myloma and other gammopathres
Prostatic specific antigens Prostate cancer
Mucins and other

CA-125 Ovarian cancer
CA-19-9 Colon cancer, pancreatic cancer
CA15-3 Breast cancer

New advanced techniques are being constantly added to the tools of the surgical
pathologists, which include:

1. Immunocytochemistry
The availability of specific monoclonal antibodies has greatly facilitates the identification of
cell products and surface markers. Some examples of utility of immunocyto chemistry in the
diagnosis of malignant neoplasms are

o Categorization of undifferentiated malignant tumours here intermediate filaments
are important. Keratin for carcinomas, desmin for neoplasms of muscle origin
o Categorization of leukemias / lymphomas
o Determination of site of origin of metastatic tumours
o Detection of molecules that have prognostic or therapeutic significance: Detection
of hormone ( estrogen /progesterone) receptors in breast cancer cells is of
prognostic and therapeutic value because these cancers are susceptible to anti-
estrogen therapy .Protein products of oncogen such as C- erb B
in breast cancer
are prognosis
o Prognosis of malignant neoplasms
o Detection of minimal residual disease
o Diagnosis of hereditary predisposition cancer

2 Flow cytometry

identification of cell surface antigens by flow cytometory is widely used in the
classification of leukemias and lymphomas Follow cytometry is used for detection of
aneuplody which is also associated with poorer prognosis in early stage breast cancer
carcinomas of the urinary bladder lung cancer colorectal cancer, and prostate cancer

VIII. Exercises

1. Define neoplasia.
2. Discuss the differences between benigin and malignant neoplasms.
3. What are the etiologic factors in carcinogenesis?
4. Discuss the clinical features of neoplasms.
5. How is the diagnosis of cancer made in the laboratory?

Saunders Company. 6th edition 1999
edition 1992
edition 1994

I. Learning objectives

By the time the student is through with this lecture note he/she should be able to:
1. Define diabetes mellitus.
2. Know the classification of DM and the basis for the classification.
3. List the criteria for the diagnosis of DM.
4. Describe the pathogenesis of type 1 and type 2 DM.
5. Describe the pathologic lesion seen in the pancreas of a patient with type 1 and type
2 MD.
6. Tell the clinical manifestation of DM.
7. Know the complications of DM

II. Introduction

Human beings are subjected to a variety of metabolic diseases, as we are a complex set of
structures that function through quite a varied and intertwined metabolic processes. Most
metabolic diseases have genetic basis while some are acquired in life or need the complex
interplay between nature and nurture for their existence. Genetic diseases either follow a
single gene disorder or a polygenic basis with multifactorial disorders.

A. Metabolic diseases with a single gene disorder
These metabolic diseases follow a Mendelian type of inheritance i.e. they follow an
autosomal dominant disorder (e.g., Familial hypercholesterolemia, Acute intermittent
porphyria); an autosomal recessive disorder (e.g. Phenylketonuria, Galactosemia, Glycogen
storage diseases); and x-linked recessive disorders (e.g. Phosphorylase kinase deficiency,
GSD). These are all rare Biochemical genetic diseases and they are beyond the scope of
this lecture note.

B. Metabolic disease with a polygenic disorder
These metabolic diseases have multifactorial modes of inheritance.
They are caused by the additive effects of two or more genes of small effect but conditioned
by environmental, non-genetic influences. Example in these groups of metabolic diseases

includes Diabetes mellitus and Gout. These two groups of metabolic diseases are further
discussed below.

III. Diabetes Mellitus

The definition, classificatioin, epidemiology, pathogenesis, morphology, clinical featutres,
diagnostic criteria, & complications of diabetes mellitus will be discussed next in this

1. Definition

DM represents a heterogeneous group of disorders that have hyperglycemia as a common
It can also be defined as a chronic metabolic abnormality of CHO, Fat, and Protein.

2. Classification
Although all forms of DM are characterized by hyperglycemia the pathogenic mechanism by
which hyperglycemia arises differ widely.
Recent classification of DM is based on the pathogenic mechanism that led to the
development of the diabetic syndrome rather than age of onset and type of therapy.
As to the new classification there are four types of diabetes of which the first two are the
major types.

A. Type 1 DM
further classified as type1A and type1B.

Type 1A DM results from autoimmune beta cell destruction which results in absolute
insulin deficiency
Type 1B (idiopathic group) is also characterized by insulin deficiency and a tendency
to develop ketosis (will be discussed later). The cause that led to insulin deficiency is
not known

B. Type 2 DM
It is a heterogeneous group of disorders usually characterized by variable degrees of
insulin resistance, impaired insulin secretion, and increased glucose production.

C. Other specific types of DM
Other causes for DM include specific genetic defects in insulin secretion or action, metabolic
abnormalities that impair insulin secretion, conditions that impair glucose tolerance, exocrine
disease of the pancreas that lead to destruction of beta cell, several endocrinopathies that
can lead to DM as a result of excessive secretion of hormones that antagonize the action of

D. Gestational diabetes
N.B- the previously used terms, NIDDM to represent type 2 DM and IDDM to represent type
1 DM, are obsolete.

3. Epidemiology
The prevalence of DM has increased dramatically in the world due to the increasing
urbanization and consequent life style changes.
There is considerable variation in DM prevalence among different ethnic groups world
wide due to both genetic and environmental factors.
Type 2DM accounts to 80% of all cases and type 1DM accounts to 5-10% of all cases
of diabetes.
The incidence of DM is similar in men and women throughout most age ranges but is
slightly greater in men> 60 years of age.

4. Pathogenesis

A. Type 1A DM

there is an autoimmune destruction of beta cells of the pancreas
It is at least after 80% of the beta cells are destroyed that a metabolic
abnormality appears in IDDM.
The pathogenesis begins with a genetic susceptibility and some environmental factors
initiates the autoimmune process in such susceptible individuals.

Genetic factors/ evidences

1. Less than 20% of Type 1 diabetics have a parent or sibling with the disease. This can
be sited as evidence that genetic factors are involved in the pathogenesis of the disease.

2. In studies of identical (monozygotic) twins in which one or both were diabetic, both
members of the pair were affected in approximately half of the cases [i.e. there is a 50%
concordance rate]

N.B these 50 % concordance rate shows that environmental factors contribute to
the development of the disease on a heritable predisposition

3. Type 1 DM is believed to be a polygenic disorder. Additional evidence came from
studies of genes that code for antigens of the major Histocompatibilty complex. In
patients with type 1 diabetes, 95% express either HLA- DR3 or HLA DR4, or both,
compared with 40% of the general population who exhibit the above MHC genes.

The above three genetic factors/ evidences show that there is a genetic factor that is/ are
important for the susceptibly to the disease and environmental factors are required to the
development of an autoimmune reaction on these susceptible individuals.

- This is a development of auto antibodies to self antigens.
- Environmental factors are essential for the development of the autoimmune process but
the exact mode of their action is not clear (see the proposed mode of action below in the
discussion of environmental factors).
- Evidences for autoimmune involvement in the destruction of B cells to wards the
development of Type 1A DM are as follows.

1. Circulating auto- antibodies against components of the beta cells and against insulin
were demonstrated in the large majority of all newly diagnosed children with diabetes.
2. The destruction of beta cells by an immune response is also evidenced by the presence
of mononuclear cell infiltrates in the pancreatic tissue of a patient with type 1 diabetes

Environmental factors

As mentioned earlier, the fact that a significant proportion of monozygotic twins remain
discordant for Diabetes suggests that non-genetic factors are required for development of
- The environmental factor in many cases that is responsible for the initiative of an
autoimmune reaction is believed to be a viral infection of the pancreas.
- Coxsakievirus, Rubella virus, Infectious mononucleosis, Mumps and other viruses are
incremented as viral causes
- Presumably, viral infections of the pancreas could induce diabetes by two mechanisms.
Direct inflammatory disruption of islets( which is a rare cause of DM) or induction of an
autoimmune response by exposing crypting B cell antigens.
- It has also been suggested that exposure to proteins contained in cow's milk may be an
environmental trigger for type1 diabetes. This is because milk proteins provide specific
peptides that share antigenic sites (molecular mimicry) with human B cell surface proteins
there by eliciting the production of auto reactive antibodies.

Genetic predisposition

Figure 10-1- Suggested pathogenic mechanism of type I DM

HLA linked genes
and other genetic loci
Immune response
against beta cells
Viral infection:
Molecular mimicry
AND/OR Damage to
beta cells
Beta cell destruction

B. Type 2 DM
Is also a polygenic disorder
Central to the development of type 2 DM are insulin resistance and abnormal insulin
secretion. Many believe that peripheral insulin resistance precedes the latter

Genetic factors
60% of patients have either a parent or sibling with this disease
>80% concordance rate in monozygotic twins
The above figures suggests that type 2 DM has strong genetic basis than type 1 DM
No association with MHC class genes is found
Despite the defect in insulin secretion, many patients with type 2 diabetes have
increased insulin concentration in the blood in an attempt to overcome the peripheral
insulin resistance. The hyperinsulinemia inturn results in decreased insulin receptors
peripherally in the muscle and adipose tissue.

Environmental factor

The major environmental factor is obesity, which augments the genetically determined
insulin resistance of type 2 DM

Type 2 DM is characterized by three pathophysiologic abnormalities: impaired insulin
secretion, peripheral insulin resistance, and excessive hepatic glucose production.
Insulin resistance.
- Is a prominent feature of type 2 DM
- Is caused by decreased efficiency of insulin to act on peripheral tissue especially liver
and skeletal muscles.
- The precise mechanism of insulin resistance is unknown but a post receptor defect is
believed to play the major role.
- Insulin resistance leads to:
A. Decreased peripheral utilization of glucose. So increased blood glucose
B. Increased hepatic glucose production

Impaired insulin secretion
- The reason for the impairment of insulin secretion is not clear
- Genetic defect, increased hyperglycemia (glucose toxicity), increased free fatty acid
level (lipotoxicity)- all are suggested as a cause or factors which worsen beta cell
failure to secrete insulin

Increased hepatic glucose production

- Insulin promotes storage of glucose as hepatic glycogen and suppresses
- Unopposed action of insulin counter regulatory hormones results in increased hepatic
glucose production.

5. Pathology (Morphology)

Type 1
The characteristic lesions in the pancreases of children, who suffer from type1 DM,
predominant lymphocytes infiltration, are seen in the islets accompanied by few
macrophages. The B cell mass is significantly decreased.

Type 2
No decrease is the number of beta cells and there is no morphologic lesion of these
Amyloid deposition is seen specially in patients older than 60 years of age
In some patients fibrosis of the islets is also seen

6. Clinical manifestations
Symptoms are due to hyperglycemia

Figure 10-2- The clinical consequense and complication of DM

Patients may present with classical symptoms of diabetes
Polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia with weight loss or they may present with DKA.

7. Diagnosis

Is based on the criteria set by Consensus panels of experts from the National
Diabetes Data Group

Symptoms of DM plus random blood glucose concentration of > 200mg/dl Or
Fasting plasma glucose > 126mg/dl. Or
Two hour plasma glucose > 200mg/dl during an oral glucose test (i.e. after an oral dose
of 75g glucose dissolved in water)

*In the absence of unequivocal hyperglycemic and acute metabolic decompensation, these
criteria should be confirmed by repeat testing on a different day.

Lossof calories
Weight loss
Mobilization of fat and
Loss of
negative nitrogen
Coma and Death

8. Complications of Diabetes

A. Acute complications

i. Hypoglycemia

Common in Type1 patients.

May be caused by missing meals or doing unexpected exercise after taking insulin doses.
In diabetic patients with autonomic neuropathy, there could be hypoglycemic unawareness.
This is so because the patient doesnt have symptoms of hypoglycemia, and wont take
appropriate measure.

Symptoms of hypoglycemia include sweating, nervousness, tremor, and hunger if it is not
corrected in time central nervous system symptoms ensue like confusion, abnormal loss of
consciousness or convulsions.

ii. Diabetic ketoacidosis.
Mostly a complication of Type1DM

Insulin deficiency coupled with Glucagon excess results in Accelerated ketogenesis
(ketone body production) ------ DKA.
Insulin deficiency results in activated lipolysis and so increased free fatty acid
concentration in the plasma
As a result body fat is metabolized as a source of energy. This oxidation produces
ketone bodies (acetoacetic acid and Beta hydroxybutyric acid), which are released into
the blood and lead to metabolic acidosis.
Inadequate levels of plasma insulin for a variety of reasons can precipitate DKA. See
the list below

Precipitating events:

Inadequate insulin administration
Infection (pneumonia/UTI/gastroenteritis/sepsis etc.)

Infarction (cerebral, coronary, mesenteric)

Clinically, ketoacidosis begins with anorexia, nausea and vomiting , coupled with
Polyuria . If condition is not treated it may go into altered consciousness and coma.

iii. Non-ketotic Hyperosmolar state

Is usually a complication of Type 2 because there is enough insulin to prevent ketosis
Patient present with profound dehydration resulting from a sustained hyperglycemic
diuresis and finally goes to a comatose state

B. Late complications of Diabetes

Mechanisms of development of diabetic late complications:

Long-term hyperglycemia is essential for the development of diabetic late complications.
Many mechanisms linking hyperglycemia to the complications of long-standing diabetes
have been explored. Currently two such mechanisms are important.

1. Non-enzymatic glycosylation.

Non-enzymatic binding of glucose (glycosylation) to cellular proteins. This leads to
formation of advanced glycosylation End product (AGEs) which cross link proteins (e.g..
collagen, extra cellular proteins), promote glomerular dysfunctions, induce endothelial
dysfunctions, and alter extra cellular matrix composition and structure.
AGEs have been shown to accelerate atherosclerosis.
Increased Glycosylated low-density lipoproteins (LDL), which do not readily bind to the
LDL receptor in the liver, thereby making LDL cholesterol available to the arterial wall.

2. Hyperglycemia leads to increased intracellular glucose, which is then metabolized by
aldose reductase to sorbitol, a polyol, and eventually to fructose. These changes have
several untoward effects. The accumulated sorbitol and fructose lead to increased
intracellular osmolarity and influx of water, and eventually, to osmotic cell injury. In the lens,
osmotically imbibed water causes swelling and opacity cataract formation.Sorbitol
accumulation also impairs ion pumps and is believed to promote injury of schwann cells

and pericytes of retinal capillaries, with resultant peripheral neuropathy and retinal

Diabetic macrovascular disease:

The extent and severity of atherosclerotic lesions in large and medium sized arteries
are increased in long standing diabetes, and their development tends to be accelerated.

Atherosclerotic lesions in large blood vessels lead to vascular insufficiency and an ultimate
production of ischemia in the organs supplied by the injured vessels.
E.g. Myocardial infarction, Brain infarction (resulting in stroke), gangrene of the toes
and feet.

Diabetic microvascular disease

Increased thickening of the basement membrane in small vessels leads to the following
chronic complication:

Diabetic Retinopathy
- DM is the leading cause of blindness in the developed world at ages>20.
- Blindness is primarily the result of progressive diabetic retinopathy and significant
macular edema

It is classified into two

1. Non proliferative retinopathy

Is characterized by retinal vascular micro aneurysms, blot hemorrhages, and cotton
wool spots
2. Proliferative retinopathy
As the vascular abnormalities tends to be severe, new blood vessels start to proliferate
in the retina

Diabetic Nephropathy
It is the leading cause of ESRD (End stage renal disease) in the developed world.

It starts with microalbuminuria (30-300 mg/d in a 24 hr urine collection) and progresses
to overt proteinuria (> 300mg/d)
Three important lesions are in a patient with diabetic nephropathy.
Thickening of glomerular basement membrane which results in glumerulosclerosis, renal
arteriosclerosis as part of the systemic
Involvement of blood vessels, and pylonephritis.

Diabetic Neuropathy

- It occurs in approximately 50% of individuals with DM
- It may manifest as polyneuropathy, mononeuropathy, and /or autonomic neuropathy

a. Polyneuropathy
- The most common form of diabetic neuropathy is distal symmetric polyneuropathy. It
most frequently presents with distal sensory loss,
Hyperesthesia, paraesthesia and pain also occur.

b. Mononeuropathy
- This is less common than polyneuropathy in DM and presents with pain and motor
weakness in the distribution of a single nerve.
- Involvement of 3
cranial nerve is most common sometimes-cranial nerves IV. VI or VII
are affected.

c. Autonomic neuropathy
- DM related autonomic neuropathy can involve multiple systems, including: the
cardiovascular, GI, genitourinary, and metabolic systems
- It may also result in hypoglycemic unawareness due to reduction in counter regulatory
hormone release.

DM comprises of a heterogeneous group of disorders in which the common denominator
is hyperglycemia. It is also characterized by long-term complication affecting the eyes,
kidneys, Nerves and blood vessels.
The current revised classification of DM is based on etiologic and pathologic process
that the hyperglycemia results.
There are two broad categories of DM types 1 and Type 2 DM

Types 1A DM is caused mainly by an autoimmune destruction of the B- cells of the
pancreases that ultimately leads to absolute insulin deficiency.
Type 2 DM is characterized primarily by peripheral insulin resistance. It also results from
impaired insulin secretion, and increased glucose production. The precise mechanism of
the above disorders in Type 2 DM is not clear but polygenic disorders are believed to
contribute to development of the said disorders.
DM clinically manifest as polydipsia, Polyuria, polyphagia, metabolic acidosis and weight
loss which are a direct or indirect consequence of hyperglycemia (increased blood
glucose level)
Destruction of a significant amount of pancreatic B- cell population and infiltration of the
pancreas by mononuclear cell is the typical pathologic lesion seen is patients with Type
1 DM.
In contrast to Type 1 DM patients with Type 2 DM do not have a decrease in the number
of beta cells and there is no morphologic lesion of the cells.
Due to a macro vascular and micro vascular abnormality patients with DM are subjected
to chronic complications of the eyes, kidneys, heart, Nerves, brain and other organs.
Due to acute metabolic decompensation that may result from absolute or relative insulin
deficiency, patients with DM are subjected to acute metabolic complication like DKA,
which is more common in Type 1 DM and non-ketotic hyperosmolar state, which is
commonly seen in Type 2 DM.

IV. Gout

Represents a heterogeneous group of diseases in which the common denominator is an
increased serum uric acid level and the deposition of sodium urate crystals in joints, soft
tissue around joints and kidneys.

Pathogenesis of hyperuricemia:

Uric acid is the end product of the catabolism of purines, derived either from the diet
or synthesized de novo.
Uric acid is eliminated from the body mostly through urine
Normal values of uric acid in the blood is 7.0 mg/dl in men and 6.0 mg/dl in women
Hyperuricemia can result from over production of uric acid, decreased urinary
excretion of uric acid or a combination of both.

1. Primary (idiopathic) Gout
In this category the causes that result in hyperuricemia are unknown,

Most cases (75-90%) of so- called idiopathic Gout result from an as yet unexplained
impairment of uric acid excretion by the kidney.
In minority of the cases, though the causes are unknown there is an over production
of uric acid.

2. Secondary
In this category the causes that result in Hyperuricemia are known
a. Conditions that result in over production of uric acid
Most common cause of overproduction of uric acid is increased turn over of
nucleic acids, as seen in leukemia and Lymphomas and after chemotherapy for
Accelerated ATP degradation for various reasons results in over production of
uric acid
Some genetic factors are also incriminated for over production of uric acid

b. Conditions that result in Decreased urinary excretion of uric acid
- The most common cause of decreased urinary excretion of uric acid is chronic renal
diseases that lead to renal failure. In renal failure the clearance of uric acid is
decreased, and with a fall in the rate of Glomerular filtrates, hyperuricemia ensues.
Other factors are also incriminated as a cause of decreased urinary excretion of uric

Pathology (Morphology):
When a sodium urate crystal precipitates from super saturated body fluids, they
absorb fibronectin, complement, and number of other proteins of their surfaces. In
phagocytizing those protein coated crystals, Neutrophiles release inflammatory
mediators resulting in local inflammatory reaction
Uric acid crystals may be found intracellularly in leukocytes of the synovial fluid.
Extra cellular soft tissue deposits of these crystals (tophi), are surrounded by foreign
body giant cells and an associated inflammatory response of mononuclear cells.
These granuloma like areas are found in the cartilages and in any soft tissue around
the joints.

Macroscopically, it appears as chalky, white deposits on the surfaces of extra-
articular structures and soft tissues around joints.
Uric acid crystals also deposit in the kidney.

Clinical features:
There are four steps in the clinical course of gout:
1. Asymptomatic hyperuricemia
Precedes clinically evident gout by many years
2. Acute gouty arthritis
Initially there is a monoarticular involvement and later in the course of the disease,
poly articular involvement with fever is common.
3. Intercritical period
- This is Asymptomatic interval between attacks
4. Tophaceous Gout
- Develops in the untreated patient in the form of tophi in the cartilage, synovial
membrane, tendons and soft tissue.
- Thophus is a chalky; yellow white deposit of monosodium urate crystals. Classic
locations are on the ear, heads, olecranon bursa, and in the Achilles tendon.

Urate stones
- Constitute10 percent of all kidney stones
Diagnosis: The presence of long needle- shaped crystals that are vely bisfrinegent
under polarized light is diagnostic of gout.

- Gout represents a heterogeneous group of diseases where there is an increased serum
uric acid revel and the depositions of sodium urate crystals in joints and soft tissues
around joints and kidneys.
- Hyperuricemia can result form over production of uric acid, decreased urinary excretion
of uric acid or a combination of both.
- Gout is classified as primary, in cases where the caused that resulting hyperuricemia are
unknown. Where the causes are identified, it is classified as secondary.
- The deposition of sodium urate crystals in joints results in elaboration of inflammatory
mediators form neutrophiles, which results in inflammation of the joint or the soft tissue

V. Exercises

Say true or false:
1. Diabetes is a disturbance of carbohydrate metabolism that does not affect the
metabolism of lipids and proteins
2. If one monozygotic twin has type 1 diabetes, the other one has or will develop that
disease in at least 50% of cases.
3. A family history of diabetes is more common in patients affected by type 1diabetes than
type 2.
4. There is a -cell morphologic abnormalities in patients with type 2 DM.
5. Pathologic changes in patients with DM in any organ, depends on the duration of

Multiple choice questions:

1. Type 1 DM is characterized by
A. Mostly occurs below age 20
B. Has an abrupt onset
C. Low levels of insulin in the blood
D. All

2. One of the following is not a micro vascular complication of DM
A. Stroke
B. Retinopathy
C. Nephropathy
D. Neuropathy

3. DKA is more common is
A. Type 1 DM
B. Type 2 DM
C. Gestational DM
D. A&B

4. One of the following is diagnostic for DM
A. A random blood glucose e level 200mg /dl with profound hyperglycemia
B. A fasting glucose level of 110 mg /dl
C. A RBS level of 126 mg /dl
D. None

5. One of the following is false statement
A. Type 1 DM is more common than type 2NKHS is more common in type 2
B. Polyuria and polydipsia are due to the hyperglycemic state
C. None

Short answer questions: Define gout.
1. What is secondary gout? List the causes that result in hyperuricemia in secondary
2. What are the clinical features of gout?
3. What is a urate nephropathy?

1. Pathology 2nd edition, Emanuel Rubin John L. Farber
2. Harrisons Principles of Internal Medicine. 15
3. Robbins Basic Pathology 7

I. Learning objectives

After reading this chapter the student is expected to:
1. Define environmental diseases
2. Know the health impacts of air pollution
3. Define pneumoconiosis
4. Describe the pathogenesis and types of pneumoconiosis
5. List the Health impacts of Tobacco smoking
6. Describe the effects of acute alcohol intoxication and chronic alcoholism
7. Describe the causes and types of physical injuries

II. Introduction
Environmental diseases include those caused by exposure to harmful substances in the
environment, in a sense that it encompasses all nutritional, infectious, chemical and physical
in origin.
Environmental diseases are surprisingly common. They can originate from occupational
exposures, polluted ambient air, chemicals taken to the body through the lung or GIT for
several reasons, or from noxious physical agents that come in contact to the body.
International labor organization has estimated that work related injuries and illnesses kill 1.1
million people per year globally. Environmental diseases constitute an enormous burden
financially and in disability and suffering. With this overview of the nature and magnitude of
these diseases we will concentrate on the more important once.

III. Air pollution

Air is most of the time, loaded with potential causes of diseases. Agents from the air like
microorganisms contaminating food and water, chemical and particulate pollutants found in
the air are common causes of diseases. It is important to see air pollution dividing it into an
outdoor and indoor.

A-Out door air pollution

The ambient air in industrialized countries is highly contaminated with gaseous and
particulate pollutants. In undeveloped countries like ours air is less polluted. Air pollution is
severe in big cities like, London, Mexico city and Losangeles. In addition air may be locally
spoiled in the vicinities of heavy industries.
There are six major pollutants, which collectively produce the well-known smog making
some big cities difficult to live in.

To emphasize on some important points:
Ozone is the most important pollutant in that it is produced in large amounts and has
serious health consequences. It is highly reactive producing free radicals, which
injures airways by virtue of release of inflammatory mediators. When healthy
individuals are exposed, they experience mild respiratory symptoms, but its effects
are exaggerated in people already having asthma and emphysema.
Particulates are harmful when their diameters are less than 10m whatever their
composition may be. Larger particles are filtered out in the nares or mucocilliary
system along the airways. The size of smaller particles helps them to reach into
airspaces (alveoli) where they are phagocytosed by macrophages and neutrophils.
Inflammatory mediator released from these cells are the once which result in the
Even if single pollutants are able to cause lung function impairments, the results are
move sever when pollutants are in a combination. It is clear that pollutants are often
time available in the air combined.
Pollutants have wide range of consequences in different organs but the lungs are the
usual targets

Here is a table listing the six important pollutants, their origins and their potential

Table 11.1 Major outdoor air pollutants

Origin (s) Consequences
Ozone (o3) Interaction of oxygen with
various pollutants: oxide of
nitrogen, sulfur and
Highly reactive, oxidizes
polyunsaturated lipids that become
irritants and induce release of
inflammatory mediators affecting all
Nitrogen dioxide Combustion of fossil fuels like
coal, gasoline and wood
Dissolves in secretion in airways to
form nitric & nitrous acids which
irritates & damage linings of air
Sulfur dioxide Combustion of fossils such as
coal, gasoline, & wood
Yields sulfuricacid and bisulfites &
sulfites which irritate and damage
linings of airways, together with
nitric acid contributes to acid rains
Incomplete combustion of
gasoline, oil, wood & natural gas
Combines with hemoglobin to
displace oxyhemoglin & thus induce
systemic asphyxia

Great variety of finely divided
pollutants may include
asbestos, plaster dust, lead, ash
hydrocarbon residue and other
industrial nuclear wastes
Major contributor to smog & a major
cause of respiratory diseases.

B-Indoor air pollution

Indoor air pollution is a major problem in undeveloped countries like Ethiopia where people
cook inside living rooms. Here, large number of family members dwell in single rooms where
cooking activities are also undertaken .So wood smoke produced in large quantities is
accumulated to affect the health of adults and children. It contains oxides of nitrogen and
carbon particulates which are irritants predisposing children to repeated lung infection.
Tobacco smoke is the commonest pollutant in the house of people living in developed
countries but additional offenders are listed in the table below

Table 11.2 Health Effects of indoor air pollutants

Pollutant Population at risk Effects
Carbon monoxide Adults & children Acute poisoning
Nitrogen dioxide Children Increased respiratory
Wood smoke Children & Females Increased respiratory
Formaldehyde Adults & Children Eye & nose irritant
Asbestos fibers Maintenance & abatement
Lung cancer, mesothe
Bioaerosoles Adults & Children Allergic rhinitis, asthma

IV. Industrial Exposures

Industrial workers are exposed to a wide range of organic and inorganic substances, which
have different kinds of consequences on their health. Diseases can range from mere
irritation of mucosa of airways due to organic fumes to lung cancer due to inorganic dusts
and leukemia due to prolonged exposure to benzene and uranium. Pneumoconiosis is a
typical example of the conditions which are brought by industrial exposures.

Pneumoconioses are a group of non-neoplastic pulmonary disease, which are due to
inhalation of organic and inorganic particulates. The mineral dust pneumoconiosis, which is
due to coal dust, asbestos, silcon and beryllium, almost always occur from exposure in work

Pneumoconioses is a result of lung reactions towards offending inhaled substances. The
reaction depends on the size, shape, solubility and reactivity of the particles. Particles
greater than 10m are not harmful because they are filtered out before reaching distal

airways. When they are less than 1m in diameter they tend to move in and out of alveoli
like gases so that they will not deposit and result in an injury.

Silica, asbestos & beryllium are more reactive than coal dust bringing about fibrotic reaction,
while coal dust has to be deposited in huge amounts if it has to result in reaction because it
is relatively inert. Most inhaled dust is removed out through the ciliary movement after being
trapped in the mucus linings. When particles reach the alveoli they are in gulfed by
macrophages. The more reactive particles activate macrophages to release fibrogenic
factors, toxic factors and proinflammatory factors. The cumulative effect becomes lung injury
and fibrosis. The important mediators released by macrophages are grouped in to three: -
1. Free radicals: reactive oxygen and reactive nitrogen species that induce lipid
peroxidation and tissue damage
2. chemotactic factors: leukotriene B
) interleukin 8 (IL-8 ) IL-6 ,and TNF which
recruit and activate inflammatory cells and which in turn release damaging oxidants (free
radicals )
3. Fibrogenic cytokines: IL-1, TNF, fibronectine, platelet derived growth factor (PDGF), and
insulin like growth factor (IG F-1), which recruit fibroblasts.

Figure 11.1 Pathogenesis of pneumoconiosis

Alveolar macrophage
Proinflammatory factors; LTB

IL-8, IL6, TNF, MIP-1
Toxic factors; O
radicals & proteases
Fibrogenic factors, TNF,
Terminal bronchiole
Recruitment of
fibroblasts & collagen
Lung injury
Recruitment & activation of
inflammatory cells

Pneumoconiosis can be classified according to the substance incriminated.
A- Coal workers Pneumoconiosis _Due to coal dust
B- Silicosis _Due to silica
C- Asbestosis _Due to asbestos
D- Berylliosis _Due to beryllium

Coal workers pneumoconiosis
Since earlier times of industrialization it has been noticed that coal miners were drying of
black lung complicated by tuberculosis. Coal dust mainly contains carbon but has a variety
of trace metals inorganic mineral and crystalline silica. Anthracite (hard) coal contains
significantly more quartz than bituminous (soft) coal. Anthracite (hard) coal is more
frequently associated with lesions in the lungs; hence the name pulmonary anthracosis is
coined for coal induced pulmonary lesions.
The disease has three distinct pathological entities:
i. Anthracosis:- Where pigments are accumulated without cellular reaction and
ii. Simple coal workers pneumoconiosis With minimal cellular reaction and little or no
pulmonary dysfunction
iii. Progressive massive fibrosis:- With extensive fibrosis and compromised pulmonary

Pulmonary arthracosis - Macrophages in the alveoli and interstitium are found laden
with carbon pigments. These macrophages are also seen along the lymphatics
including pleural lymphatics or lymphoid tissue along bronchi and lung hilus.
Simple Coal workers pneumoconiosis (CWP) characterized by coal macules and coal
nodules. Coal macules constitutes of carbon-laden macrophages aggregated, coal
nodule is when the macule additionally contains collagen fibers.
Complicated CWP - progressive Massive fibrosis (PMF) - occurring in the background
of CWP after many years by coalescence of coal nodules. It is characterized by coal
nodules intermingled with collagen fibers with central necrosis, size ranging from 2cm to

Clinical course

Pulmonary anthracosis and simple CWP result in no abnormalities in lung functions.When it
progress to progressive massive fibrosis in minority of cases it results in pulmonary
hypertension and corpulmonale. Progression from simple CWP to PMF has been linked to
amount and duration of exposure to coal dust. Smoking also has been shown to have the
same effects. Sometimes of course the progression does not need factors mentioned

Asbestos Related Disease
Asbestos is a generic name that embraces the silicate minerals that occur as long, thin
fibers. Asbestosis refers to the pneumoconiosis that results from the inhalation of asbestos

Asbestos fibers are thin and long so that they can reach the bifurcations of bronchioles and
alveoli. There, they are engulfed by macrophages to induce the cascade of inflammatory
process, which finally result in interstitial pulmonary fibrosis.

1-Asbestosis:-is an interstitial fibrosis of the lung. At early stages, fibrosis is in and around
the alveoli and terminal bronchioles. when disease progresses, gross examination of the
lungs show gray streaks of fibrous tissue, which accentuate the interlobular septa, together
with diffuse thickening of the visceral pleura. The asbestos body is the most diagnostic
structure seen under the microscope, consisting of asbestos fiber beaded with aggregates
of iron along its length.
2-Pleural plagues: - after a period of many years the inhalation of asbestos fibers will result
in the appearance of plaques on the partial pleura.
They are 2 to 3 mm thick, and microscopically they are densely collagenous and hyalinized
and sometimes calcified.
3-Mesothelioma:-a clear cut relationship between asbestos exposure and a maligment
mesothelioma is now firmly established.
4-Other malignancies like lung and bladder cancers can also result from asbestos exposure.

V. Tobacco Smoking

Considering the globe, the adverse effects of tobacco smoking out number all the effects of
other pollutants. It is considered as one of the most important preventable causes of death
in the United States. In our society also even though its health impacts are not so
pronounced it still has series health damage.
Tobacco smoking affects not only those who are actively smoking but it also has an adverse
consequence on the health of those who are by the vicinity of the smoker. These individuals
are termed as passive Smokers.

Active Smoking and disease
The cigarette smoke that is taken through the mouth into the lung has several types of
chemicals that have diverse & serious effects on our health. The composition depends on
the type of tobacco, length of the cigarette, and presence and effectiveness of filter
tips.Usually present are (1) Carcinogens whose effects have been verified in lower animals
(e.g.polycyclic hydrocarbons, betanaphthylamine, nitrosamines). (2) Cell irritants and toxins
(e.g. Ammonia, formaldehyde, and oxides of nitrogen). (3) Carbon monoxide, and (4)
nicotine, which has various effects on the sympathetic nervous system, blood pressure heart
late and the like.
The more common adverse health effects of tobacco are lung cancer, coronary heart
disease, COPD (Chronic bronchitis, emphysema), and systemic atherosclerosis.And the
less common effects are peptic ulcer, Cancer that can originate from larynx, esophagus,
pancreas, bladder & kidneys.
Cigarette smoking also causes COPD, which are chronic bronchitis and Emphysema, which
have a tremendous health impact. Systemic arteriosclerosis and other forms of cancer are
also diseases caused by cigarette smoking, which collectively contribute to many deaths. In
general smoking is the single most important cause of cancer mortality in the United States.
Fetuses are also adversely affected by maternal smoking. Several studies have shown that
maternal smoking could cause low birth weight, prematurity, still birth and infant mortality.
Moreover other complications of pregnancy like abruptio placentae, placenta previa, and
premature rupture of membranes have been found to be caused by maternal smoking.
The risk of mortality is dose dependent. The number of pack years i.e. number of packs per
day times number of years is directly related to mortality rate.The more pack years of
smoking the higher the risk of mortality.Coronary heart disease causes most of the deaths

when it comes to effects of cigarette smoking. Lung cancer closely follows causing a huge
number of deaths.

Involuntary smoke exposure (Passive Smoking)
The effect of passive smoking has been identified during the last few decades. Its effect
comes when non-smoking people inspire the ambient air, which is polluted by cigarette
smoke. The health impact depends on the volume of the air in the room, number of active
smokers, rate of air exchange and duration of exposure. Data from different countries show
that the risks of lung cancer increase by 1.5 due to passive smoking. There is also
increased risk of cardiovascular diseases specially MI, and high incidence of lower
respiratory tract diseases in infants & children of smoking parents. Children & infants of
smoking mothers will have an obvious intense exposure and hence retardation of physical
and intellectual growth is likely to occur.

Benefits of cessation or reducing exposure to cigarette smoke
When a person stops smoking the risks of diseases and subsequent death start to decline
The risk to reach to that of non-smoking people may take 20 years of smoke-free period.The
amount of cigarettes smoked daily, and duration of smoking determines the rate of decrease
of risks. The relative risk of lung cancer and laryngeal cancer start to decline after 1 to 2
smoke free years. However considering lung cancer former smokers will have slightly higher
risk than non-smokers even after 30 years of smoke-free years.

When it comes to coronary diseases the decline of risk is rapid and it can level with those of
non-smokers after 5 to 20 years. Once COPD has been developed quitting does not have
any significant effect in reversing the situation.

VI. Chemical & Drug injury

Injuries due to chemicals can be from therapeutic agents and nontherapeutic agents.

A. Adverse drug reactions
Injuries due to therapeutic agents are known as adverse drug reactions. Adverse drug
reactions are any response to a drug that is noxious and unintended and that occurs at
doses used in humans for prophylaxis, diagnosis, or therapy. ADRs are only rarely due to
physician failures like inadequately monitored use or over use of drugs.

ADRs can be divided into two categories.

1. Exaggeration of the intended pharmacologic effect which are largely predictable effects
2. An unpredictable response unrelated to the drugs primary action.

The 1
one-encompasses all adverse reactions, which result from use of powerful drugs
used to treat potentially fatal diseases like cancer. For example use of large dose
daunorubicin or doxorubicin to treat some forms of cancer may cause cardiotoxicity.
In the 2
group the ADRs are unpredictable and they vary from individual to individual
taking a specific drug. The reactions is called idiosyncrasy and is due to an abnormal
immunologic response to the drug or un predictable cytotoxicity caused by the drug.
Possible examples will be extensive hepatic necrosis, which develops after intake of
therapeutic dose of acetaminophen, or anaphylaxis, which develop after therapeutic dose of

B. Non-therapeutic agents

Ethyl alcohol

A large percentage of our population is a social drinker and still a significant number of
individuals are alcoholic or alcohol dependent. Alcohol has an obvious acute effect but has
also an effect of a long-standing use of alcohol on organs and tissues.
Alcohol Metabolism: -
About 2 to 10% of the ethanol consumed is excreted directly through the breath, urine or
sweat. The amount exhaled is directly proportional to the blood level and hence is used by
legal enforcement agencies. After ingestion, a small amount of ethanol is directly
metabolized by gastric mucosa alcohol dehydrogenase. The rest is rapidly absorbed from
stomach & intestines, once in the liver alcohol is metabolized by three pathways in the liver
cells. The 1
involves hepatic alcohol dehydrogenase, yielding acetaldehyde, which is then
converted to acetate by aldehydedehydrogenase. In this process NAD is converted to
NADH. The 2
involves the hepatic microsomal P-450 system. It too yields acetaldehyde,
oxidisable to acetate. The 3
pathway, which is less frequently utilized, involves
peroxysomal catalase. All the three pathways yield acetaldehyde, which can be metabolized
to acetate, and the 1
two produce more NADH from NAD.

Microsomal P-450 oxidases catalase

Fig 11.4 Metabolism of alcohol: the major (rate limiting) pathway is via ADH.

Acute Alcoholism

Acute alcoholism exerts its effects mainly on the CNS even though; the stomach and liver
can also have reversible damages. Alcohol has depressant effect on the CNS.It depresses
the inhibitory control centers thereby releasing excitatory pathways that accounts for the
wide spread belief that alcohol is a stimulant. The extent of CNS depression depends on the
alcohol blood levels. The cortex affected first, the limbic system, cerebellum and finally
brainstem are affected as the blood level increases. Coma and total respiratory arrest
become likely at 300 to 400 mg/dl levels. Not with a clearly understood mechanism, acute
alcoholism has also "black out" effects that are episodes of forgetting what has happened
during drinking.

Chronic alcoholism
The increase NADH:NAD ratio, which is created by alcohol metabolism, may be responsible
for the metabolic consequences of chronic alcoholism. Chronic alcoholism produces
morphologic changes in almost all organs and tissues.
Hepatic changes: these are the most common consequences of chronic alcoholism.These
changes are namely fatty change, acute hepatitis and alcoholic cirrhosis. These are
discussed in adequate detail in the chapter that deals with liver diseases. Fatty changes can
occur with in a few days of even modest alcohol consumption. Cells are distended with fat
accumulation, which can be mobilized when the exposure to alcohol is discontinued.
Alcoholic hepatitis can occur with episodes of heavy drinking and may or may not be
preceded by fat accumulation and may or may not be followed by cirrhosis which is the end
stage of fatty changes that occur in chronic alcoholism.

Central nervous system changes

1-Wernickes encephalopathy

The commonest CNs change is wernickes encephalopathy.This is due to a thiamine
deficiency that occurs during chronic alcoholism.The chronic alcoholic subsists with an
inadequate dietary intake and alcohol itself impairs intestinal absorption of thiamine. This
condition may occur in non-chronic alcoholics who become thiamine deficient for various

Wernickes enephalopathy occur in a subset of alcoholics, probably in those who have an
inherited or acquired abnormality of a thiamine dependent transketolase (enzyme involved
in cerebral glucose & energy metabolism) reducing its affinity for thiamine.
Clinically it is characterized by ataxia, global confusion, ophtalmoplegia and often
nystagmus. The underlying morphology includes foci of symmetric discoloration and
sometimes softening with congestion, & punctate hemorrhage in the paraventricular region
of the thalamus & Hypothalamus, in the mammillary bodies about the aqueduct in the
midbrain, in the floor of the fourth ventricle and in the anterior cerebellum. The neurons may
be relatively spared in the early stages but eventually reveal degenerative changes and
eventually cell death.

2- Korsakoffs syndrome

After individuals, with Wernickes encephalopathy, are treated with thiamine, they show a
profound memory loss, which does not improve with thiamine treatment. This condition is
termed as korsakoffs syndrome. There are no specific morphologic changes other than
seen in wernickes encephalopiathy but this does not show any improvement with thiamine
treatment. Hence it is believed that korsakoffs syndrome is caused by direct neurotoxicity of
ethanol compounded by a lack of thiamine.

3- Cerebellar ataxia

Cerebellar degeneration, related to loss of purkinges cell in the cerebellar cortex, is a well-
documented cerebellar change found in a minority of chronic alcoholics. These are
supposed to be due to thiamine deficiency as well, rather than ethanol direct toxicity.
Cortical atrophy is also a potential consequence but many studies didnt reveal any
reduction in size of the cortex in chronic alcoholics.

Peripheral Nerves

The peripheral nerves suffer a demylinating polyneuropathy, occasionally mononeuropathy
that is fairly common in chronic alcoholics who are malnourished. The basis is thought to be
thiamine deficiency rather than ethanol toxicity.

Cardiovascular system

A moderate intake of alcohol tends to increase the level of HDL and hence protects from
atheroma formation and coronary heart disease. However heavy consumption, which
causes liver cell injury, will decrease the level of HDL and contributes to atherosclerosis &
coronary heart disease. On the other hand a direct ethanol injury to myocardium will result
in cardiomyopathy, which is discussed in the chapter that deals with heart diseases.

Miscellaneous changes:

Chronic alcohol intake has a tendency to produce hypertension even though in low doses
alcohol (ethanol) tends to reduce blood pressure. Chronic alcoholics suffer higher incidence
alcoholic myopathy. During pregnancy a condition known as fetal alcohol syndrome may

take place in infants whose mothers have been taking alcohol even as low as two to three
drinks per day. The fetues can have microcephally, mental retardation, facial mal formation
& cardiac defects at times. Increased risks of cancer of pharynx, larynx, esophagus,
stomach, & possibly rectum & lung have also been encountered in chronic alcoholics.

VII. Physical injuries

These are mainly classified in to four groups: injuries due to mechanical forces, changes in
temperature, changes in atmospheric presence, and electromagnetic energy.

A-Injuries due to mechanical forces
Injuries due to mechanical forces are (1) soft tissue injuries, (2) bone injuries, (3) head
injuries. Injuries to the bones & head are considered else where. Here we deal with soft
tissue injuries, which are divided accordingly to their depth.
Abrasion: this type of injury represents the most superficial type of skin injury, which
involves the epidermal layer. It occurs when superficial epidermal cells are turnoff by friction
or a glancing blow. There is no perforation of the skin & hence regeneration occurs with out

Laceration versus incision
Laceration is an injury over the skin which is an irregular tear produced by overstretching.
Depending on the tearing force it can be linear or satellite. The margins of a laceration are
frequently hemorrhagic & traumatized and there will be bridging stands of tissues like blood
vessels or fibrous tissues at the base. An incision is made by a sharp cutting object like
knife. The margins are relatively clean and there are no bridging fibrous strands or tissues.
An incision, in contrast to laceration, will be approximated by sutures to heal leaving no or
little scar. laceration can take place to deeper tissues or organs without apparent superficial
injury for example when a fast moving vehicle collides with and object the liver of a driver,
not using safety belts, can lacerate when his body impacts on the steering wheel.
This is an injury that is cause by a blunt force that injurs small blood vessels & causes
intestinal bleeding usually with out a breach on the superficial tissue the bleeding will be
evident if the contusion is on a superficial tissue but if it is in deeper structures like skeletal

muscles the bleeding will be evident after several hours or may remain obscured excepts
the swelling & pain that is felt at the area over the contusion.

Gunshot wounds
Looking at the gunshot wounds give a very detailed story as to whether the shot is from a
distance or, near by, or from a rifle or a handgun. It also tells the direction from which the
bullets came & other important information for a forensic pathologist. The character of a
gunshot wound at entry & exit and the extent of injury depend on the type of gun used,
caliber of bullet, the type of ammunition, the distance of the firearm from the body, etc.
Entry wounds in general are smaller than exit wounds. With a shot from close range, the
entry wound has a gray black discoloration produced by the heat, smoke and unburned
powder. There are also peripheral stippling of discrete, larger particles formed by the
unburned powder, When the shot distance increases a beat only the stippling are present
and at greater distances no gray black discoloration or stippling are present rather a wound
smaller in size from the bullet and with narrow enclosing rim of abrasion is present.
Cutaneous exit wounds are generally more irregular than the entry wounds due to the
wobbling or trajectory motion of the bullet. In high velocity riffle bullets the exit wounds are
larger and there are no stippling or dark discolorations. Large caliber, light velocity bullets
cause extensive injury around the traversing wound due to the mass, velocity and motion of
the bullet. Small caliber low velocity bullets cause a limited amount of injury to surrounding
In general, it suffices to say that gun shot wounds tell a story to the experienced individual.

B-Injuries related to changes in temperature

Human beings are homoeothermic and their internal temperature must be maintained
between 30
C and 43
C. Even these limits can be tolerated for a brief time. Abnormally high
and low temperatures are injurious to the body and their damage are different and have to
be discussed separately.

A. Injuries due to abnormally high temprature

These can be brought by flame, boiled water or steam, electricity and etc. It involves mainly
children and young adults and is very common in our society.

Cutaneous Burns
The severity of the burn effect depends on:

- % Of total body surface involved
- Depth of the burn
- Possible presence of internal injuries form inhalation of hot gases & fumes
- Promptness and efficacy of the post burn therapy

Burn can involve the most superficial part of the skin or it can go even deeper to internal
organs. Terms like partial thickness and full- thickness burns are applied to describe the
degree of burn injury. In partial thickness, the dermis with its skin appendages is preserved.
Epidermis can be fully or partially devitalized and it continues to provide a cover to the
burned area. Such burns are characterized by blistering, protinacious fluid exudation from
dilated and injured small blood vessels. Inflammatory reaction and regeneration of the
epidermis from preserved appendages of dermis are also common features. The epidermal
cells may exhibit deranged membrane permeability, with nuclear and cellular swelling or
may show clean pyknosis and granular coagulation of cytoplasm.
Full thickness burn implies total distraction of the entire epidermis extending into the dermis
and even more deeply at times. Regeneration from dermal appendages is scarce and hence
healing will result in scarring unless skin grafting is performed. With the epidermis burnt out
the dermal collagen may take the appearance of a homogenous gel. The cytologic changes
described in partial thickness burn may be seen in deeper structures and the inflammatory
reaction seen in the partial thickness burn is greater here.
The systemic effects are feared more than the local injury. Neurogenic shock can prevail
due to the pain and this can be followed by hypovolemic shock when the individual looses
fluid from the burned area. Dreadful infection can develop because of a wide area, which is
open to infection and due to a media favorable for proliferation of microorganism. The
wound infections can progress to regional thrombophllbitis, infective endocarditis,
pneumonia, cellulitis, and sepsis.

B. Injuries due to abnormally low temperature

The effects of hypothermia depended on whether there is whole body exposure or exposure
only of parts. Death may result when the whole body is exposed, with out inducing apparent
necrosis of cells or tissues.This is because of the slowing of metabolic process, particularly

in the brain and medullary centers, when parts of the body are exposed, local changes
result depending on the types of exposure to low temperature

Local reactions

Injury to cells and tissues occur in two ways
1. Direct effect of low temperature on the cells
2. Indirect effects due to circulatory changes

Circulatory changes will be in two ways: slow temperature drop that will result in
vasoconstriction and increased permeability leading to edematous changes as in trench
foot, sudden sharp drop that will result in vasoconstriction and increased viscosity of the
blood leading to ischemia and degenerative changes.Edematous changes in trench foot
could be followed later by atrophy and fibrosis.

C. Injuries related to changes in atmospheric pressure

1. High altitude illness
This is encountered in mountain climbers in atmospheres encountered at altitudes above
4000m. The lower oxygen tension produces progressive mental obtundation and may be
accompanied by poorly understood increased capillary permeability with systemic and, in
particular pulmonary edema.

2. Air or Gas Embolism
This may occur as a complication of scuba diving, mechanical positive- pressure ventilatory
support, and hyperbaric oxygen therapy. In all these occasions there is an abnormal
increase in intra-alveolar air or gas pressure, leading to tearing of tissue with entrance of air
into the interstitium and small blood vessels. Pulmonary, mediastinal, and subcutaneous
emphysema may result. The coalescence of numerous small air or gas emboli that gain
access to the arterial circulation may lead acutely to stroke- like syndrome or a myocardial
ischemic episode.

D-Electrical Injuries

The passage of an electric current through the body:-
May pass without effect
May cause sudden death by disruption of neural regulatory impulse producing, for
example, cardiac arrest

Or may cause thermal injury to organs exposed to electric current

Although all tissues of the body are conductors, their resistance to flow varies inversely to
their water content. Dry skin is particularly resistant, but when skin is wet or immersed in
water resistance is greatly decreased. Thus, an electric current may cause only a surface
burn of dry skin but, when transmitted through wet skin, may cause death by disruption of
regulatory pathways.

Environmental pathology deals with diseases that are brought by exposure to harmful
substances in the environment.

The ambient air could be polluted by potential causes of diseases. Out door air of
industrialized cities is highly polluted with six major pollutants, which affect the health of
inhabitants. In the developing world indoor air pollution could risk the health of families.
Industrial exposures pose a huge burden to the health of peoples. Organic fumes and
particulates taken into the lung cause several types of Neoplastic and non-Neoplastic
diseases. Pneumoconioses are a group of non neoplastic lung diseases caused by
inhalation of organic and inorganic particulates. Coal dust, asbestos, silicon and beryllium
are mineral dusts which cause most of the pneumoconiosis. People affected by different
types of pneumoconiosis go through more or less, same kind of steps in to severe forms
when exposure continues. In coal workers pneumoconiosis the patient will first have a non-
symptomatic blackening seen along the lymphatics and lymphnodes which mark coal laden
macrophages. This can progress to simple coal workers pneumoconiosis (CWP)
characterized by fibrous macules and nodules. only few can go to the serious form called
progressive massive fibrosis which has deleterious impact on pulmonary and cardiac
Smoking is the single most important pollutant, which affect the health of millions of
individuals. Both active and passive smoking have serious health consequences resulting in
lung cancer, coronary heart disease, COPD, systemic at hero sclerosis etc. Abstinence has
a positive impact in progressively lowering the risks imposed by the previous years of
Alcohol, even though taken in small amounts have a health promoting effect, when taken in
more amounts it will have short term and long term un healthy impacts. Alcohol is a CNS
depressant capable of resulting in respiratory arrest and coma in large amounts. The liver is

mainly hit hard by its deleterious effects. Central and peripheral nerves systems, as well as
cardiovascular systems are also its targets.
When dealing with environmental diseases injuries caused by physical forces have to be
thought about. These could be caused by mechanical forces, extreme high or low
temperatures, atmospheric pressure changes or electromagnetic energy.

VIII. Exercise
1. What could be causes of environmental diseases?
2. What is the pathogenesis of pneumoconiosis?
3. Describe the three morphologic appearances of coal workers pneumoconiosis.
4. How does progressive massive fibrosis result?
5. Mention four important adverse health impacts of smoking.
6. The pathogenesity of mineral dusts does not depend on
a. Size of particles
b. Reactivity of particles
c. Duration of exposure
d. The amount inhaled at a time
e. None

7. Which one of the following cant be a result of coal workers pneumoconiosis
a. Black lung
b. Progressive massive fibrosis
c. Cor pulmonale
d. Lung cancer

8. Which of t he following mineral is associated with mesothelioma
a. Beryllium
b. Charcoal
c. Asbestos
d. Silca

9. Which one of the following is the most common cause of mortality among cigarette
a. Lung cancer
b. Coronary heart disease
d. Stroke

10. Which one of the following is true

a lcohol is a stimulant
b. Alcoholic fatty changes are irreversible
c. Wernickes encephalopathy is an indirect effect of alcoholism
d. The liver takes all the responsibility of alcohol metabolism